INTRODUCTION & OVERVIEW

In the Great Northern War (1700-21), Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Saxony-Poland were allied against Sweden, which was in its height of power and territory. By the 20^th of August 1721, King Charles XII of Sweden signed a treaty of peace that would replace Sweden’s dominance of the region with Russia’s. During the 16^th and 17^th Centuries Swedish territorial conquest antagonized nearly all its neighbors. Swedish possessions in Estonia and Livonia blocked Russian access to the Baltic Sea, and thus prevented all trade with western powers. The Denmark-Norway alliance wanted to regain provinces on the Scandinavian Peninsula. The German Princes in Pomerania were also becoming anxious to take back their land, even as far south as Poland Swedes were resented for their control of Livonia. These frustrated neighbors saw their chance for reprisal as King Charles XI died in 1697 leaving his son Charles XII to take the throne of Swedish Empire at age 15. By 1721 the changes brought about by the Great Northern War signaled a new era, not only for Russian dominance, but also for economic development and international recognition in the Baltic. Although Peter I’s conquest (“Peter the Great” of Russia) did bring the wealth and prosperity of trade along with western influence to the shores of the Baltic, the only obvious change for Baltic commoners was the language spoken by those ruling over them.

CRUCIAL BATTLES

The battle of Narva was the first major victory by Charles XII and the Swedes. Not only a significant win because of territory gained, but it also signaled to the rest of the Baltic that Swede’s military force outmatched that of the Muscovite/Russian army. On November 20^th, 1700, in a two-hour battle during a blizzard, the Russian army was practically annihilated by Charles’s superior military forces. This was an enormous defeat in which Charles had crushed an army of nearly five times the size of Sweden’s forces. Ironically, this battle, though a great historical victory, may have been the beginning of Sweden’s downfall because it signaled to Peter that he needed to reorganize and westernize his army. Peter undertook this task while Charles was busy regaining the land claimed by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. One primary document suggests that an Estonian peasant, Steppinsch Krauklis, who led the Swedish army through detour to the Muscovite camp, aided Charles’s decisive victory. The tides of war did not change again until Peter’s reorganized army defeated Charles on June 28, 1709 at Poltava. Charles’s infantry was nearly destroyed and with his own personal health in danger he retreated to Turkish Moldavia. This battle marks the beginning of Swedish decline and the rise of Peter’s Russian empire.

Initially, Sweden and her young king, Charles XII shocked the allied states in their unexpected success. Right away Charles saw victories against Denmark-Norway, Muscovy, and Poland-Saxony. Before he defeated the Saxons in August of 1706, Charles forced Augustus II (“Augustus the Strong”) of Poland to enter a peace treaty. After these victories, the record cold winter of 1708-9 brought a state of weakness and uncertainty to Sweden’s troops, as they became seriously short of food and fodder. However, by June 1709, feeling that his troops had recovered, Charles marched into Poltava into what would become the beginning of his end. On the day before the battle a stray bullet injured Charles during reconnaissance mission. Consequently the charismatic leader could not lead his troops into battle; instead General Rehnskiold whom they did not trust led them. This only further deepened the troops low morale.

RUSSIAN RESURGENCE

After Narva, Peter claimed that his defeat had been a blessing forcing him to create a modern army. As Charles battled in Poland, Peter began melting down church bells to make new artillery. He created industries to supply his armaments and began building a Western-style army. On May 16, 1703 Peter founded St. Petersburg, the city from which he would begin reestablishing Russian dominance in Estonia and Latvia. In the summer of 1704 Peter captured Dorpat and Narva. By 1709 the Russian army had grown too strong for Charles to defeat. This year marked the decline of Sweden and Poland as major powers and the beginning of Russia as the dominating European state.

Despite his initial loss at Narva, Peter continued his plan of occupation and dominance of the Gulf of Finland to secure his access to the sea. By 1703 the Russians had the eastern end of the Gulf, and with the creation of St. Petersburg at the fortified mouth of the Neva River, Russia gained an outlet to the Baltic Sea. Peter also retook the cities of Narva, Dorpat, and Tartu. However, in 1706 Augustus, under Swedish pressure abdicated the Polish throne and recognized Stanislas Leszczynski, who immediately broke the Polish alliance with Russia. Peter sued for peace but Charles refused negotiations instead he turned to attack Russia at the Vistula river with nearly 45,000 men. Unprepared and lacking supplies, the Swedish army marched deeper into Russia, where Charles’s demise became the birth of Peter’s “Greatness”. On June 28, 1709 the battle of Poltava ensued. Initially, Charles looked to conquer Russian forces, yet at a climatic Swedish charge Peter recognized Swedish lack of coordination and with 40,000 fresh troops he regained control of the battlefield. This overwhelming force turned the tide of the battle and with it the role of dominance slipped from Charles’s hands into Peter’s.

THE DOWNFALL OF THE POLAND-LITHUANIA COMMONWEALTH

Before the Russian empire, the Poland-Lithuanian state dominated most of Eastern Europe for 500 years. Prior to Sweden’s conquest of Poland-Lithuania (Livonia) Russia began the occupation and devastation that would result in the demise of Poland-Lithuania. On August 9, 1655 Alexis, tsar of Muscovy, (1645-76) concluded a “remarkable campaign, which upset the whole balance of power in Eastern Europe.” In Robert Frost’s analysis of the situation he argues that the Swedish “deluge” of 1655 delivered the coup de grace to Poland-Lithuania provoking the political and military collapse of the second largest state in Europe. While the Swedes were eventually driven out, Frost concludes that the Swedish invasion was a decisive turning point in the history of Lithuania-Poland. By the time Charles XII began his campaigns of the Great Northern War the military power in the Commonwealth was undermined by internal conflict and was unable to defend itself against an aggressive attack by Charles. In August of 1706, Charles seized Leipzig without opposition and “Augustus the Strong”, King of Poland-Lithuania, sued for peace. The Nobles of Estland (Estonia) and Livland (Latvia) were greatly influenced during the alliance against Sweden by Charles XI’s decision to implement his plan for reduction two decades earlier. Evidence of this can be seen in the 1717 account of Johann Reinhold, Count of Patkul. This primary document, written by Reinhold’s assistant demonstrates the noble discontent with Sweden that had already come to a head in the 1690’s when German landholders whose land had been reduced by three fourths under the reduction laws of Charles XI. At a landtag (political gathering of nobles) Reinhold was selected as a representative to renew the Livonian confederation and overthrow Swedish rule. After forming alliances with Poland, Russia, Demark and Austria Reinhold wanted to regain the Swedish lands that had been claimed by reduktion. However, once he united these countries, the allies turned against him and Poland delivered him to Sweden where he was tortured to death.

PETER’S VISION OF RUSSIA AFTER SWEDISH DECLINE

This assault on Riga was preceded by propaganda generated by the Russian controlled Duchy of Kurland. To coerce Riga into agreement, Peter ran a “campaign which promised the Livonian nobility guarantees of the return of their lands confiscated by the reduktion . . . Similar agreements were made in the towns of Parnu and Reval.” (Kirby, 307) Peter wished to gain popular support within the Baltic by granting theses concessions to the burgers and nobility. Peter also secured his territorial claims to Estonia by granting a guarantee of electoral Saxony and Livonia to be held by Augustus and his successors, “marking the ascendancy of Russia in the war over Sweden’s Baltic possessions” (Kirby, 307). Peter had set his sights on the control in the Baltic arena and not “even the series of attacks launched by the Turks against Russia – which culminated in near–catastrophe for Peter when his army was surrounded on the river Prut in 1711 – could deflect the tsar form his aim of achieving mastery over the eastern Baltic.” (Kirby, 307). In 1710 Peter controlled Livonia and Estonia including the towns of Viborg and Kexholm. He had build a shipyards and held a respectable yet inexperienced navy, commanded mostly by foreign officers. Nevertheless it was Peter's ambitious drive to institute western methods of military and economic growth that gave Russia its upper hand at Poltava.

POLITICAL CHANGES IN THE BALTIC

March 1697 to July 1698 Peter undertook his “great embassy” to Western Europe. This remarkable journey, quite unprecedented in the history of the Russian monarchy, . was to acquire knowledge of technical skills, above all shipbuilding and navigation. As an immediate result of the tsar’s travels, Russia acquired the services of nearly a thousand foreign experts. By 1698 Peter began a series of innovation “which had almost the effect of a revolution” including the reorganization of the army and creation of a navy, together with the social changes that were essential to Russian inclusion in European Politics Peter so ardently sought.

By the end of the Northern War, Peter brought international recognition to the Baltic region. “Poltava is an unmistakable turning point in Russia’s relation with the rest of Europe. Until the catastrophic defeat of Charles XII in the Ukraine, Peter and his country had occupied a relatively minor place in the calculations of western statesmen” (Bromley, 734). Poltava transformed Charles from a conqueror into a fugitive. Upon this transition the Russian minister in Vienna wrote in 1709, “now people begin to fear the Tsar as they formerly feared Sweden.”

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bromley, J.S. The New Cambridge Modern History VI The Rise of Great Britain and Russia 1688-1725. Cambridge University Press, 1970.

This is the sixth of the 14 volume Cambridge University compilation of article on every conceivable subject relating to western history. Since most article are written by the faculty members of British universities they may be slanted toward anglophile view of the Baltic States.

Cavendish, Richard. “The Battle of Narva,” History Today, November 2000, 50.

Cavendish’s study on the Battle of Narva is a concise description giving the background and events surround Charles XII defeat of Peter I on November of 1700. His analysis also provides a discussion of the motives that drove Peter and Charles to struggle for dominance over the Baltic region. Cavendish’s concludes his article by recounting the Russian acquisitions the Swedish losses that eventually followed the Battle of Narva.

Englund, Peter. The Battle of Poltava: the Birth of the Russian Empire. London: Victor Gollancz LTD, 1992.

This book examines the military strategies and commencement of Sweden and Russia during the battle of Poltava on June 28, 1709. Englund’s book portrays the battle as a turning point for the Russian empire and his argument rests on Charles XII’s dauntless and exhaustive campaign. He talks about the lack of resources and knowledge of territory that Charles faced as he pushed toward St. Petersburg. The book also contains several accounts of specific individuals including their involvement and often death in the war. The main text is broken into five sections: Prologue, The March, The Battle, The Retreat, and Epilogue. The book includes additional documentation including, a contents of maps, a categorized works cited, a biographical appendix, and index. Englund’s in depth research allows a concentrated view of how weak Sweden became and why they would never be able to regain dominance over the Russians.

Goodwinson, C. The life of Johann Reinhold, Lord of Patkul. 1717

Charles Goodwinson, personal assistant to Johann Reinhold, Count of Patkul, wrote this document in 1717 to give the account of Lord Patkul’s life as a diplomat in the Baltic. Reinhold was instrumental in forming the anti-Swedish alliance of Poland, Denmark, and Russia that led (1700) to the Great Northern War. A price he eventfully paid with his life. The document includes a description of Reinhold’s fate from the dramatically different views of Swedish nobility and Estonian nobility. As a result it is valuable to evaluating the separate attitudes of the Northern War in the two regions.

Frost, Robert I. The Northern Wars: War. State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558-1721. Longman, Harlow, 2000. Maps. Plans. Tables. Appendices. Bibliography. Index.

Dr. Frost’s analysis of the northern wars takes at it fulcrum the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as opposed to focusing on the decline of Sweden or the rise of Russia. Frost gives strong evidence to support his opinion that “far form being a ramshackle ungovernable land of factious magnates, the Polish-Lithuania Commonwealth was able to sustain a tremendous military burden and to devise flexible and imaginative ways of dealing with this.” (David Kirby) Frost concludes that the military decline of the Commonwealth resulted primarily from its political and cultural life than any distance between European military standards. Frost also provides a unique view of Sweden’s drive for territorial hegemony in the Baltic; he maintains that it was the attraction of military careers that helped relieve an impoverished economy and stimulate military expansion. By setting Poland-Lithuania in a wider context of the northern war Frost does much to reshape modern view of the evolution of military state in the Baltic.

Frank E. Smitha. <http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h30-sw.html>

Mr. Smitha has compiled a research to build his web page WorldHistory. He has been attending or studying at schools beginning in 1955 and received his B.A. degree in history in 1977. The research is quite extensive and impartial. Smitha’s has useful links, relevant information and is also easy to navigate. He has taken great detail to list each important battle city with a link to a map current of that time. The site provides a good overall view of the chronological event, with links throughout the text to direct reference the reader back to related topics. This site was still current at of April 25, 2002.

Holmes, Richard, ed. The Oxford Companion to Military History. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.

This is an encyclopedia of the all the military history recorded by the Oxford University Press, and it can be called at Odegard Reference Library. It includes a full bibliographical references and index. It is a chronologically organized outline of the specific battles fought and important activities undertook in the Northern War. The definition begins with the Alliance against Sweden in 1698 and it ends with the Treaty of Nystad between Russia and Sweden in 1721. Each battle is joined by a brief description of the place, significance and outcome of the battle or treaty illustrated.

HyperHistory Online. <http://www.hyperhistory.com/online_n2/civil_n2/histscript6_n2/northern.html>

Contains a brief description about the Great Northern War and it gives a brief background to the events in the Baltic region. The company seems to be well founded and is recommended by Encyclopedia Britannica. In addition to this the company has received the Golden Web Award and the Academic Excellence Award. A description of the goals and purpose is given and I have provided it below. I found this web site using the search engine google on April 16, 2002

“The World History Chart - a companion to HyperHistory Online - contributes to a better understanding of the historical forces that shape today's global affairs - from China to Afghanistan, the Middle East, Europe and America. Many famous people from around the world have been using the original chart enthusiastically. The world history chart - which is displayed in many Luxury Hotels around the world - makes also for a perfect birthday gift.”

Kirby, David. Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period. New York: 1990.

David Kirby’s book gives a view of the “great northern war” not only from the point of political leaders but also as it impacted the people of the commonwealth. Kirby first describes the political background and military position of the major powers in 18^th Century Northern Europe. Beginning on page 298 Kirby describes the void left by the death of King Charles XI (Karl XI) of Sweden on April 5, 1697. Kirby quickly moves to the first military action taken by Karl XII who first launched a campaign against king Fredrik IV of Denmark. Next Kirby deals with is the Saxon attempt to occupy Livonia and their failure to dislodge Riga from the Swedish yoke. Kirby continues to describe the battles fought between Sweden Poland and Russia with general information regarding each battle, and the military action taken by each in response to the battles. He does much to explain the aspirations of Peter the Great, the tsar of Russia, who envisioned his empire spreading westward to fill the void left by Karl XI. Finally he attempts to explain the eventual defeat and fall of the Swedish empire. Kirby’s book is mostly useful in analyzing the forces and military objectives behind each battle, but it also very detailed accounts of the important political figures and interactions that shape the Great Northern War.

Raun, Tuvio U., Estonia and the Estonians. Hoover Institutions Press, 2001.

This gook deals exclusively with Estonia and has only 34 pages devoted to the issues prior to 1710, including a few references to the Estonian peasants. At the end of Swedish rule Raun estimates that the peasant household was forced to part with 50-80% of its output.