The Moravian Brethren in the Baltic And Their Influence on the Rise of Cultural Nationalism
Anna Munson
May, 2001
Tilling the soil for the later advent of Cultural Nationalism in two of the Baltic Provinces (Estland and Lifland), the Moravian Brethren cultivated Estonian and Latvian identity by offering opportunities to acquire vital organizational skills through education and experience during the mid-1700’s. The conscious lack of separation between daily routine and their practice of religious belief, the Moravian Brethrens’ influence spanned all aspects of its members’ lives. Included was a network of schools, social groups, and the final unifying move--the emphasis placed on community singing and prayer. Such unity not only schooled the peasants in methods of how to work communally, but moved them toward new realizations. Hope became another asset that generated from the Baltic peoples’ contact with the Moravian Brethren faith. Humane treatment of the aboriginals, who were serfs, by the Moravian Brethren contributed significantly to a sense of self-respect and possibility in a future that had not existed before. Such possibilities eventually lead to more grandiose ideas--such as that of a united people.
From Bohemia to the Baltic
Part of a religious "awakening" that spread across Europe during the 1600-1700’s, the Moravian Brethren’s roots go back to the Hussites in Bohemia. Jan Hus was the Hussite leader and after he was martyred in 1415, the Hussites split into the Calixtines and the Taborites. Eventually the differences between the two factions caused violence and the Taborites were nearly destroyed. The few Taborites remaining reorganized and became the "Brethren’s Union" or "Bohemian Brethren" (also Unitas Fratrum--later to be called Herrnhutian and Moravian Brethren). For several centuries, the Bohemian Brethren were persecuted, gradually moving out of Bohemia. One of the groups of refugees found their way to Moravia in 1722. In Moravia, Count Nicholas Ludwig von Zinzendorf granted them land (called Herrnhut) on which to live in religious tolerance. After a few years, Zinzendorf restructured the Bohemian Brethren religious body into the "Herrnhutians", creating a strong religious, social, and political unit (for further reading-Wilhelm, Catholic Encyclopedia, 1-4).
Within just one decade, Zinzendorf began sending Herrnhutian missionaries to work abroad. Christian David, a carpenter and an official of Zinzendorf’s, arrived first in Riga (in what is now Latvia) in 1729, and in 1739, he went to Urvaste (in what is now Estonia). By February of 1742, the Herrnhutians had already made enemies: the knighthood in Estonia described the Brothers’ fast progress as "religious disorders" in the parish of Pastor Nauhaus (Voobus, 138). Later that year, Tallima Paap, a popular and charismatic leader, was arrested and imprisoned along with fifty Herrnhutian members. Many others were arrested or exiled. Members of the Lutheran Church who had worked alongside the Brethren were threatened; Lutheran pastors who had, in turn, felt threatened by the Brethren now actively undermined Brethren authority in the regions. By November, the knighthood essentially shut the Brethren down by declaring illegal the very tenets and practices of their church. But it was not until April 16, 1743, when the Empress Elizabeth banned the Brethren faith in the whole of the Russian Empire, that the final blow was dealt. The reason given for the harsh decree: the serfs were becoming disobedient to their masters, disgruntled about their workload, and the Brethrens’ ‘secret’ teachings were responsible. The peasants were beginning to stand up straight, beginning to see the light of a different, more human, existence (for further reading-Voobus, 138-146 and157-162).
The Herrnhutians continued working underground until in 1764, when Empress Catherine II inadvertently gave back religious rights. Under new leadership, A. G. Spangenberg, the Brethren began to slowly gain momentum but were still choked by the Lutheran Church and its many protections. On October 27, 1817, Tsar Alexander I officially proclaimed liberty to the Brethren. Shortly after this second and total restoration of rights, the number of Brethren in Estonia went from 31,000 members in 144 communities to 70,000 members in 250 communities (Voobus, 158). However, by the 1860’s, the Lutheran Church had managed to nearly wipe out the movement by demanding concessions the Brethren simply could not comply with and survive. The Church forcecibly requested the disbanding of the core organizing units, the choirs, and put an end to the practice of casting lots. The officials in the movement had to step down and, eventually, the Brethren were forbidden to recruit new members (Voobus, 162). The Brethren though had clearly left an indelible mark on the lives of thousands of serfs; ideas of equality and freedom (Mezezers, 59).
Ideas of Equality Create Courage
Moravian Brethren beliefs on civil rights were quite revolutionary in the Baltic provinces. The equality of all, regardless of wealth, family name, ethnicity, gender and other social dividers, was of extreme importance. Authority to lead was not contingent on any of these characteristics but rather on the cast of the lot. The only acknowledged status was the one of "Christian", though the Herrnhutians accepted newcomers despite their previous religious loyalties. The Brethrens’membership in the Baltic had reached 66,330 by 1839, in part because of these ideas of equal rights (Kirby, 73). Highly appealing to the severely economically and ethnically oppressed natives, these ideas directly challenged the Baltic Germans of their "inherited right" to rule, undermining a system which had been in place for hundreds of years. Nobles who did join the Brethren could now be led by a indigenous pastor. Even women were given the authority to lead congregations (Voobus, 108). Because of the practice of equality, native men and women served in positions of responsibility in both the church and community, giving experience and self-respect. Beliefs against entering military service also interfered with the current power structure, for now the peasants in the Brethren communities refused to fight the noble’ wars.
The Individual and God
The Moravian’s theology emphasized the New Testament, specifically Christ’s forgiveness and his sacrifice, made for the individual. Zinzendorf referred to the Brethren as "...a people born from Jesus’s side..."(Atwood, 73). This emphasis on an individual relationship with God, and an emotional relationship, characterized the services of the Brethren ( Zinzendorf saw himself as a follower of Luther). A personal connection with God strengthened the importance of self. The singing of hymns constituted a significant part of the Moravian services and provided a necessary emotional release, a voice in which a suffering people could cry out. The Moravian observance of re-baptizing and the belief in regeneration implied that one could start one’s life over. Such beliefs are appealing to a serf without a future. Religious discipline--obedience to the moral laws and practices of the community--however acted as a counterweight and provided a structure within which the individual could work for the common good. Communal structure and its support is vital to a politically active people. Organizing fervently around a shared cause and learning to orchestrate change within shared ideals feeds into the later unifying concepts of Cultural Nationalism (for further reading on theology-Gollin, 9-22 and Mezezers, 109-120 and Atwood, 67-74).
Casting for Authority-Political Responsibilties
Religious practice and community life functioned as a unit. The building of houses, the offering of marriage proposals, the choosing of missionaries; all were decided by Brethren society through the practice of lot casting (Sommer, 5). This method basically consisted of asking God to voice his will to the congregation through a lottery: the solutions for the problem posed were written on slips of paper and then one was randomly drawn from a box (Gollin, 54-58). The one chosen was God’s decision. The idea that even authority could be granted in such a random manner underlined the equality of the congregations members, and that their ultimate subservience lay only to God (for further reading-Sommer, 1-11).
Communal Councils, the Helpers Conferences, General Conferences, Trades Conferences, the Judiciary Councils, the Synods, the Boards of Directors--the Moravians’ complicated governing system functioned for the emerging peasants as an essential political training ground. Such training began at the grassroots level in the local meeting houses; the complex network of choirs were erected according to age, gender, and marital status and led by the locals themselves (for further reading-Gollin, 25-109).
Literacy and Education-The Seeds of a Nation
A top priority for the Brethren to sustain themselves as a community was education. Education not only created a more capable congregation, but created singularity in thought. Not only community schools, but teacher’s seminaries, were established in the native languages (Voobus, 125). The importance of teaching literacy and the publishing of books in the native languages cannot be overestimated. By 1897, 95% of the people of Estland and 92% of the Livland peoples could read. Compare this to the rest of the Russian Empire in 1897-only 28% could read (Raun, article, 115). Literacy opened avenues unheard of for the native population. It was the Herrnhutians who finally successfully published the Bible in Estonian in 1739. Now peasants had direct access to the Gospel for the first time since Christianity came to the Baltic. Peasants set to work hand-copying religious texts. Such activity not only provided others the choice of receiving these texts in their native tongue but also the copyist to commit them to heart. Asked to write their own autobiographies and hymns by the Herrnhutians, the serfs responded with intelligent prose in their own language. A considerable achievement, such writing stimulated the development of a written language, an academic language, which later played a significant role in Cultural Nationalism. The use of one’s own language to write original works starts intellectual dialog with future generations.
In the Moravian Brethren publications, which circulated as far as Africa and America, the ethnic groups were asked to research and write about their own folk culture (Voobus, 130). The assigned collecting of folklore generated discussions on identity, which built a foundation for interest in their own people. Evidence of these thoughts and conversations are preserved today in the diaries and letters exchanged between members (Mezezers, 85). These literary works not only affected the natives involved directly with the Brethren, but reached out to those outside the community, in the Estland and Livland Provinces, and even the rest of the world. This is the first time a literary heritage was created in these countries, this is the first time a network of written communication of ideas in the indigenous tongue was encouraged (for further reading-Voobus, 124-138 and Mezezers, 77-100 and Raun, article, 117-119).
Success Where the Church had Failed
The Moravian Brethren, because of the potency of their influence in the Baltic, had a negative impact on the ancient folk religions. Natives who joined the Brethren began to destroy the sacred groves and root up the sacred stones themselves. Today, the areas where the Brethren were the strongest, the traditions and memories of the earlier folk religions are significantly missing (Voobus, 120). Here the Brethren had succeeded where the Church had failed for hundreds of years (for further reading, Mezezers, 36-60 and Voobus, 101-124.)
The Brethren flourished where both the Catholic and Lutheran Church had struggled in many ways. Their sincerity in providing help to the oppressed people of the Baltic was in direct opposition to the history of the Church as merely a tool of the oppressors. Real communication was achieved by the Brethren because they used the languages of the people they were attempting to reach. Emphasis on family and community appealed to the serfs--family was often their only possession in this world, therefore of utmost importance. The humility evident in the Moravian Brethren got the attention of the peasants in contrast to the pomposity of the Church. The missionaries called themselves "lowly-worms", and the majority of the missionaries did manual labor--they were carpenters, blacksmiths, farmers--and were not ordained priests. The missionaries did not refer to the people in the Baltics as "wicked pagans" as the Church had in the past, rather the provinces were the "Land of the Good" (Mezezers, 63). The Moravian belief in equality was fervently practiced, not just talked about. Peteris Kisis, a peasant from Latvia, recorded in a letter his first encounter with Count Zinzendorf. Zinzendorf approached Peteris in the field, greeted him like a brother and shook his hand. Peteris went home crying, shocked at such welcoming and kindness from such an important man of God-and a noble (Mezezers, 70). Again, unlike the established Church, life and religion were not separate--the Moravians beliefs were alive, active, material--there was an attractiveness and unbelievable power in practicing what they preached.
Moravian Brethren Influence-Catalyst for Future Revolution
Similar to the roots of the American independence in 1775, religious "awakenings" stirred the indigenous peoples of the Baltic to thoughts of nationhood. The image of a people who are united by similar customs and language of their own was planted in the indigenous consciousness by the Moravian movement. The next logical step was preserving one’s linguistic and cultural interests. The tools with which to accomplish such goals were also generated by the Moravian practices and beliefs-- literacy, political experience and faith in a better future. Several of Latvia’s literary works which are considered as national classics were written by authors with Herrnhutian backgrounds: writers such as Apsisu Jekabs, the brothers Kaudzites Reinis and Kaudzites Matiss, and Janis Poruks (Mezezers, 123). Even the heritage of communal singing amongst the Brethren influenced the happening of such movements as the "singing revolutions " which later constituted an integral part of the struggle for independence by the Estonians in the 20th century (Kuutma, 3). To carve out their own land wherein which their language and its customs can thrive becomes the next necessary action to pursue. Information on the indigenous peoples published worldwide in the Moravians’ journals alerted and educated others about these people and their right to exist culturally in their own land. The talk of equality fed into the peasant farmers’desires of having their land returned to them. When an outside group comes to a people in such poverty and validates their access to equality -this is revolution! The courage to stand up and push against the system that has trapped them is born and nurtured with this validation. Though national changes came gradually, the Moravians’ legacy of a brief glimpse of freedom contributed to the building of a cognizant, literate peoples, capable of the founding of a nation.
References Cited / Bibliography
Estonian Institute, " The Estonian Evangelical Moravian Church," 1997, <http://www.esis.ee/ist2000/einst/society/SOreligion.htm#THE ESTONIAN EVANGELICAL MORAVIAN> (8 April 2001).
This site was included because it actually mentioned the MB in Estonia and their role in establishing an "Estonian" identity.
Gollin, Gillian Lindt. Moravians in Two Worlds. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1967.
The author did research while holding a predoctoral fellowship with the Social Science Research Council. Lindt’s book is a study of the similarities and differences in the social, religious, political and economic spheres of two major Moravian communities; Herrnhut, Saxony and Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Well-written and well-organized, Lindt quotes diaries, letters, Zinzendorf himself, hymns, Brotherhood political documents and statues and even dietary restrictions! Many topics are evaluated critically, with sufficient data and logic. Lindt did appear to chiefly consult with the Moravian Brethren in Pennsylvania and the work’s argument tends to favor the more liberal American Brethren. Lindt discusses the theology and rituals of the MB, their form of governing(development of the synod, the use of lots, where main power resided etc.), the choir system and its societal effects(marriage,raising of children,unity of the group), the ways in which property and labor were divided, and the monetary workings of the two communities. I found this book especially useful in how the Brethren as a unit functioned; what roles the people experienced in leadership, decision-making and in creating community as a whole. This book does not discuss the Brethren in the Baltics but does give one a full grasp on the overall organization and influence of the movement on its members which gives insight into how it possibly affected the peasants in Latvia and Estonia.
J.E. Hutton; MA, "History of the Moravian Church," 1909, <http://www.everydaycounselor.com/hutton/intro.htm> (8 April 2001).
An entire book published on-line, outlining the history of the Moravian Church, written and printed by the MB, in 1909.
Kirby, David. The Baltic World 1772-1993. London and New York: Longman publishing, 1995.
Dr. David Kirby is Professor of Modern History at the School of Slavonic Studies, University of London. This book is the second in a series of two works on the Baltic states. Maps and a glossary are included. Dense with data, Dr. Kirby starts his study with Estonia and Northern Latvia changing hands between Sweden and Russia, and ends his vast work dealing with the prospect of the Baltics possible inclusion in NATO. Kirby’s research encompasses a vast array of material and topics and can be a demanding read for new Baltic scholars. From the stance of my limited knowledge ( I am not a scholar of his caliber), I did not detect any major biases and his conclusions appear logical and in accordance with his evidence. His brief analysis of the effects of the Moravian Brethren discusses them in the light of other forms of "rural protest", in which I found validation for my own thesis.
Kristin Kuutma, "Cultural Identity, Nationalism and Changes in Singing Traditions," n.d., <http://www.folklore.ee/Folklore/vol2/ident.htm> (8 April 2001).
The author discusses the MB in relation to the developing of cultural identity and empowerment of the Estonian people through the MB’s emphasis on singing.
Mezezers, Valdis, S.T.M.,Th.D. The Herrnhuterian Pietism in the Baltic. North Quincy: The Christopher Publishing House, 1975.
This book was written by a Latvian reverend, raised in the Herrnhuterian spirit, who served as one of the elders in the Herrnhuterian Brotherhood in Riga in the early 1900’s.
Reverend Mezezers is a pious believer whowrote this book to honor and share the Herrnhuterian heritage. In this respect, he does hold his definite religious biases, especially his virtual santification of Zinzendorf, and his preference for emotional argument concerning the Latvian peoples and their innate spiritual goodness. To his credit, he uses several primary sources-including an entire chapter of letters and diaries of members in the Founding of the Brotherhood in the Baltics, again primarily in Latvia. Some of Zinzendorf’s hymns are listed also, as is the basic theology of the movement and Zinzendorf’s background. The literary and educational activity of the Brethren in the Baltics(especially Latvia) and its effects are discussed. I found this to be quite useful considering Reverend Mezezers touches on the nationalistic tendencies found in many later Brethren letters to each other. At the conclusion of the work, he summarizes his own experiences as a Herrhuterian and mentions literary pieces by Latvian writers who were raised in Brethren communities.
Mezezers’ book was one of two books I found written in English about the Moravians and their direct and detailed involvement in the Baltics and I recommend it as an introductory source.
James D. Nelson, "Zinzendorf," 1993, http://www.mistral.co.uk/hammerwood/zinz.htm (8 April 2001).
A quick summary of the MB, this site contains sections on Zinzendorf and Spangenberg, two major leaders of the Brethren. It also does a piece on Pietism, which I found helpful. The author lists an impressive (in relation to other websites found) bibliography, which is probably its most useful feature.
Raun, Toivo U. Estonia and the Estonians. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1991.
Dr. Raun is a highly praised, and excellent scholar of the Baltic, especially Estonia. It is my understanding that this book is a "classic" in Estonian studies. The length and scope of Dr. Raun’s bibliography alone is of tremendous assistance to learning about the Baltic! Appendix to the book includes charts, tables, extensive footnotes and a glossary. Included in the body of the work are photographs and drawings. Well-written, clear for the new Baltic student, his work begins at the prehistoric area of Estonia and concludes with Estonia’s position in March of 1991, shortly before their recent independence. I detected no glaring biases but the book only offers a few pages of discussion of the Moravian Brethren. Dr. Raun’s summary of the Moravian Brethren’s influence in Estonia, however, is fact-oriented and conscise, highlighting their major affects. It is useful in this regard.
Voobus, Arthur, Th.D. Studies in the History of the Estonian People. (Stockholm: Estonian Theological Society in Exile, 1974), vol 1: 67-192.
Dr. Voobus seemingly, by his credentials and the amount of books etc he has authored, is quite the religious scholar. He is Estonian, knows many languages essential to studying Baltic history in depth, and attended the University of Tartu. In the pages I used for my paper from this three-volume work, Voobus writes not only on the social, educational, literary and political effects of the Moravians in Estonia but talks of the Pietism that came before them that helped set the stage for the tremendous influences the Brethren would have. Reasons for the fast growth and appeal of the Brethren are discussed (including their constant persecution by the Church and the nobles) and thoughfully analysed, citing many primary sources. Dr. Voobus’ footnotes are extensive and insightful; he is well-read. He includes several key players in the movement in different areas, and also gives quantative values on many of the statements he makes. Religious agreement with the Brethren shows in this work but the author also speaks on the negative impact, especially on folk culture, of the MB. The development of Estonian’s future intelligentsia (and their nationalistic fervor) as seen in the light of their Moravian past concludes the pages I found useful in his work. Admitting the tremendous effort (and ultimately impossible task) of making concrete all the effects of a religious movement of such scope, Dr. Voobus’ detailed work I found to be of the utmost help in my research of the Moravian in Estonia. Excellant!
J. Wilhelm, "Bohemian Brethren," 1999, <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02616a.htm> (8 April 2001).
Great site! A well-written brief on the Moravian Brethren, the author includes a short history of the church and its influences. The main tenets of the MB doctrine are also discussed and the movement’s prime players. Geographically though, the emphasis is on the renewed faith in England and its immigration to America.