The history of the Lithuanian people is quite different from that of their Latvian and Estonian neighbors. From the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ruled over large parts of Eastern Europe, extending its influence from the Black Sea to the Baltic. The Grand Duchy is marked by periods of rule of several well-loved and well-known rulers; Gediminas, Mindaugas, and Vytautas are still remembered in modern Lithuanian songs and poems. Gediminas, the "enlightened" king who ruled from Vilnius, invited Western artists and intellectuals to Lithuania and promoted religious tolerance. Vytautas traveled the Lithuanian lands by himself, and even fought in battles at the ripe age of eighty. Under his rule, Lithuania experienced peace and cultural development, as well as economic prosperity. Mindaugas was one of the creators of the Lithuanian political state, and is credited for uniting many of the Lithuanian tribes.

Yet most of the history of the Grand Duchy is plagued with wars from all sides. Although the terrain of Lithuania slowed its occupation by foreign neighbors, it was eventually overtaken and the state dissolved. The politics of the Grand Duchy, especially its close ties with Poland, are often confusing and dramatic, and ultimately decisive to the fate of the Lithuanians. To understand modern Lithuanian culture and religion is to examine and understand its colorful past.

Rimdaugas

The beginning of the 13th century was scarred by vicious wars in what is now Lithuania. The name "Lietuva" (the Lithuanian word for their nation) first appeared in chronicles written in the 11th century during wars with Ruthene, or Russian, tribes. The first Grand Duke, Rimdaugas, succeeded in bringing the scattered Lithuanian tribes together to defeat their enemies: the Ruthenes and Tartars in the east and the German Order of the Sword in the north. The organization of the Lithuanian tribes continued to grow under Ardvila, Rimdaugas' successor, who is best remembered for his defeat of the Tartars in 1242.

Mindaugas

Mindaugas rose to power after Ardvila, and ruled from around 1220 until 1263. He employed able war generals, and under his rule the new Lithuanian nation and its army grew quickly. In 1252, Mindaugas was baptized and presented with a royal crown from the Pope. Yet his decision was not entirely religious, as his military and domestic policies had created numerous enemies and the support of the Pope would help to increase his clout.

Despite their leader's Christian status, the Lithuanian people at this time held pagan beliefs, and would continue to do so for several coming centuries. And although the country experienced several military successes, the lives of average citizens were hardly peaceful. The Teutonic Knights, a German-led army, would continue to fight in the Lithuanian lands for years, although they suffered a rather harsh defeat in 1261. Conspirators assassinated Mindaugas in 1263, after which the country experienced nearly twenty years of political strife.

Trenoita, Traidenis, Vytenis

Trenoita, Traidenis, and Vytenis ruled after Mindaugas during the years 1263-1316. Unlike Mindaugas before them, these rulers considered themselves heathens, and many Lithuanian Christians were subjected to various forms of religious persecution. Trenoita continued most of Mindaugas' policies, as he had worked alongside him in the previous government -- this included supporting Livonian and Prussian rebels with military aid. Trenoita was killed after only two years of rule.

Traidenis continued with the new anti-Christian policies, refused to be allied with Christian states, and concentrated most of his efforts on bringing together and organizing native Lithuanians. He was also a skilled military leader, and under his regime Lithuania became even more powerful and larger than it had been under Mindaugas. King Vytenis, who came to power in 1295, is best remembered for allying the now heathen Lithuanian nation with the Catholic City of Riga (the capital of Latvia). This alliance was favorable both politically and economically, and Riga was by this time a large trade port for all types of goods, including military arms.

Gediminas

Gediminas, one of Lithuania's best-loved kings, ruled from 1316-1341. He allowed religious freedom, and although officially refusing to be baptized, he encouraged Christians to worship alongside Pagans. Gediminas if often called an "enlightened" ruler, because during his reign he invited Western and Eastern artists, merchants, and farmers to come to Lithuania. It is said that he had a strange dream in which a powerful iron-clad wolf stood atop a hill and howled, and upon that site a great city would be built and whose fame would spread around the world -- and that city was Vilnius, the capital of modern Lithuania.

It was also under the rule of Gediminas that Lithuania created its first alliances with Poland. Through marriages and diplomacy, he forged a peace with Poland that would last almost twenty years. This was largely due to the fact that unlike many of the rulers before him, Gediminas was more of a diplomat than a military man. After his death in 1341, Lithuania was ruled by his two sons, Algirdas and Kestutis.

Algirdas and Kestutis

Algirdas made his residence at Vilnius and controlled Lithuania's eastern affairs. Kestutis lived at Trakai, and his main concerns were with Poland and the Teutonic Order. The courts of the two kings were in marked contrast: only Lithuanian was spoken in the residence of Kestutis, Polish and Lithuanian at that of Algirdas. Kestutis was much more popular with the general public than his brother, and his wife Birute is also praised in folk legends as a vestal virgin whose duty it was to guard a sacred fire on a hill. Although neither king was ever baptized, both felt extreme pressure to do so from various sources. This state of rule lasted 32 years, from 1345 to 1377. And although Lithuanian citizens continued to experience religious freedom and improving education, they still had wars to fight, with Kestutis invading Poland in 1350 and Algirdas fighting the Tartars in the east.

While the two-king arrangement worked well at home, it was often confusing to foreign diplomats and scholars. Fortunately, both brothers were able diplomats who worked well together and so were successful in maintaining a stable state for many years.

Jogaila (Jagellon)

When Algirdas died in 1377, he named his son Jogaila as his successor. Kestutis accepted this, and expected to continue the dual rule much in the same way as he had with his brother. Almost as soon as he took power, Jogaila was involved with battles with the Teutonic Knights, but in 1379 an armistice was signed at Trakai, the home of Kestutis. Yet one year later, Jogaila was to deceive Kestutis for what would prove to not be the last time. On May 31, 1380, Jogaila signed a pact of "eternal peace" with the Teutonic Order, and although the pact's provisions protected his possessions, they also allowed attacks on the holdings of Kestutis.

Together with Vytautas, the son of Kestutis and Jogailas' co-conspirator, Jogaila joined together with the Tartars and intended to attack Moscow with their help in 1982. But poor planning gave the Muscovites advance notice of the attack and they were able to defeat the Tartar forces before the Lithuanians even arrived. Within several months of this defeat, Kestutis learned of Vytautas' and Jogaila's secret pact with the German Teutonic Order, and in retaliation attacked Vilnius in 1381, where he took Jogaila and his family captive. Kestutis proclaimed himself the sole ruler of Lithuania, and his actions have earned him a major place in Lithuanian history. While Jogaila is considered by most to be a disgraceful traitor, Kestutis is remembered as a brave warrior and great king.

Now Kestutis was left largely with one enemy -- the Teutonic Knights, with whom the Lithuanians had now been battling for several generations. But in 1382, Jogaila along with his mother and brother Skirgaila, tricked Kestutis and Vytautas (who had by this time allied himself with his father) with the help of the Teutonic Order. Kestutis was taken captive, and died several days later, some say murdered by Jogaila. Vytautas remained under the watch of Jogaila after his father's death, but was able to escape later in the year by dressing up as a maid and sneaking out of the castle. Later Vytautas proceeded to win the support of the Teutonic Order for his purposes, and with their help was able to bargain with Jogaila and regain his father's previous Western Lithuanian kingdom.

Vytautas

In the autumn of 1383, Vytautas was baptized, thus ending the heathen era of Lithuanian history. By the end of 1384, Vytautas and Jogaila had established a relatively stable peace, and were beginning to work together, albeit hesitantly.

But in 1385, events took a turn when Jogaila married the princess-queen of Poland, thus becoming the King of Poland. Just weeks before, Jogaila had also been baptized, and given the name "Ladislas". And thus began the union of the Polish-Lithuanian state, one of the largest and most powerful in Europe at that time. Jogaila had left most of Lithuania in the hands of his brother Skirgaila, but by 1392 Vytautas had overthrown him and taken control of the country. This was one of the many problems which Jogaila faced trying to control Lithuania from his residence in Poland.

The exact nature of the Lithuanian-Polish union is still debated today. Some Poles insist that Lithuania was a sort of dowry offered by Jogaila, although this claim is vehemently opposed by most Lithuanians. The two countries did not share a common parliament or constitution, but agreed to exchange prisoners, fight enemies together, and engage in joint economic ventures. In 1387, with the support of Poland, Lithuania was converted to a Catholic state, and although it took several centuries for the native Lithuanians to be truly converted, it is a legacy which lasts until this day. This is in comparison with Lithuania's northern neighbors Estonia and Latvia, which are mostly Protestant.

Under the rule of Vytautas, which lasted until 1430, the Lithuanian people enjoyed better government, technology, and culture. Vytautas was a well-educated man in both Eastern and Western teachings, and sought to educate his people with a broad range of ideas. He is also remembered for having a genuine concern for the state of the Lithuanian peasants, often personally travelling the land to meet with them and hear their complaints. He fought in several wars, including the defeat of the Teutonic Order in 1410, and also succeeded in increasing Lithuanian holdings by sending Lithuanian nobles to distant reaches of the kingdom. This last plan actually turned out to be harmful to Lithuania, because these nobles were now so far away from their homeland that they had lost touch with its language and culture, and soon assimilated into the areas to which they were sent. Yet Vytautas is considered to be one of the greatest Lithuanians that ever lived, and is even still referred to as "Vytautas the Great". He was respected for allowing religious, cultural, and economic freedom into Lithuania, and for awakening the nation's pride. It was under his reign that Lithuania saw its brightest and most successful years. When Vytautas died in 1430, so died the last of the Grand Dukes. After his death, Lithuania was ruled by a long succession of short-lived and largely unstable rulers who largely tried to emulate Vytautas, but who ultimately couldn't stop the Treaty of Lublin, signed in 1569. This officially joined the two countries together, but this was not to last, as they would fall into war with each other by the end of the century.

Bibliography

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Gerutis, Albertas, "Lithuania 700 Years" New York 1969.

Harrison, E.J. "Lithuania, past and present" London 1922.

Jurgela, Constantin, "History of the Lithuanian Nation" New York 1948.

Mysteikis, Antanas, "The Reformation in Lithuania: Religious Fluctuations in the Sixteenth Century", New York 1973

Rowell, S.C. "Lithuania Ascending: A pagan empire within east-central Europe, 1295-1345" Cambridge, 1994