APPENDICES
A. The Main Caravan Routes.
B. The territories of Haixi, Haibei and
Haidong.
C. The “great seas” and the
“Western Sea.”
D. Sea Silk.
E. Wild Silks.
F. Maritime Commerce and Shipping
during the Han Period.
G. The Water Cisterns on the Route
between Petra and Wadi Sirhan.
H. The Identification of the city of
Angu with Ancient Gerrha and Modern Thaj.
I.
The Spread of Ideas and Religions along the Trade Routes.
J. Climate and other Changes along the
Silk Routes.
K. The Identification of Jibin as
Kapisha-Gandhāra.
L. The Introduction of Silk Cultivation
to Khotan in the 1st Century CE.
M. The Canals and Roads from the Red Sea to the Nile.
N. Kanishka’s Hostage in History
and Legend.
A. The Main Caravan Routes
The overland routes from China to India,
Parthia, and the Roman Empire stretched thousands of kilometres and presented
the traveller with many geographical, and ever-changing political, obstacles.
Rarely,
if ever, did caravans travel the whole route. Goods were carried to
market-places where they were sold or traded, local taxes paid, and then other
merchants transported them onward.
Long-distance
freight costs were high, so preference was given to trade in rare or precious
goods that were relatively light, compact, and non-perishable (such as silk).
The
animal that made this long-distance trade possible was the camel. Camels can
carry half as much as a horse and cart, and twice as much as a mule. They can
travel long distances with minimal water and fodder. Carts and formed roads
were, not needed, substantially reducing transport costs. Caravans could use
alternative routes, or head across open country, whenever necessary. There was
no need to stick to a road, if there was enough water, fodder and fuel available.
At first the caravans
mostly used the two-humped, or ‘Bactrian’ camel, native to Central
Asia, and better adapted to the cold than the one-humped dromedary, or
‘Arabian’ camel. Cable and French (1943), pp. 169-172.
At some point, it was
discovered that first-generation hybrids between the two had more stamina than
either of the original breeds, but it was some centuries before a
cold-resistant one-humped variety was bred. Bulliet (1975), pp. 141-175.
A
standard camel load in Roman times was about 195 kg (430 pounds). Over 227 kg
(or 500 pounds) could sometimes be carried for shorter distances. A pack camel
could travel 24 to 32 kilometres (15 to 20 miles) a day, and go for long
periods without food or water. Bulliet (1975), pp. 20, 24, 281, n. 35. The main
east-west caravan routes provided excellent conditions for camel travel almost
the whole way from China to the Roman Orient.
Trade between distant parts of the
Eurasian landmass has been occurring for several thousand years at least. Lapis
lazuli was traded from the mines in eastern Badakhshan to Mesopotamia and Egypt
by the second half of the fourth millennium BCE at the
latest.
The earliest
long-distance road, the ‘Persian Royal Road,’ may have been in use
as early as 3,500 BCE. By the time of Herodotus, (c. 475 BCE) it ran some 2,857 km from the city of Susa on the lower Tigris to
Smyrna near the Aegean Sea. It was maintained and protected by the Achaemenian
empire and had postal stations and relays at regular intervals. By having fresh
horses and riders ready at each relay, royal couriers could carry messages the
entire distance in 9 days, though normal travellers took about three months.
This ‘Royal
Road’ linked in to many other routes –some of them, such as the
routes to India and Central Asia, were also protected by the Achaemenids,
ensuring regular contact between India, Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean.
Another very ancient
series of routes linked Badakhshān in northeastern Afghanistan –the
only known source of lapis lazuli in the ancient world – with Mesopotamia
and Egypt by the second half of the fourth millennium BCE, and by the third millennium with the Harappan civilization in
the Indus valley. Sarianidi (1971), pp. 12-13.
By the second millennium
nephrite jade was being traded from mines in the region of Yarkand and Khotan
to China. Significantly, these mines were not very far from the lapis lazuli
and spinel (‘Balas Ruby’) mines in Badakhshān and, although
separated by the formidable Pamir, routes across them were, apparently, in use
from very early times.
Regular diplomatic
contacts and large-scale trade between China and the West first occurred soon
after the daring explorations and international contacts developed by the
famous explorer and diplomat, Zhang Qian circa 112 BCE.
The main ‘Silk Route’ to the
west crossed out of the Tarim Basin past Kashgar by relatively easy passes,
accessible to camel caravans. They crossed into Ferghana, and then continued
through relatively flat country, with sufficient water and fodder for camels,
all the way to Parthia, Syria, and beyond.
However, camels do poorly in
mountainous or rocky regions, so goods had to be off-loaded onto mules, yaks,
or human porters before crossing the high passes over the Pamir and Karakoram
mountains into southern Bactria and northern India.
Dunhuang was at the
crossroads of several routes, including the main route from Central Tibet to
Mongolia, and the three main branches of the ancient ‘Silk Routes’
across and around the Tarim Basin.
The first major
difficulty facing caravans after leaving Chinese territory at the Yumen
Frontier Post (about 85 km northwest of Dunhuang – see Stein (1921), II,
p. 691), was to find a way around or across the fearsome Taklamakan desert. The
Taklamakan forms a giant oval enclosed to the north, northeast, west, and south
by some of the highest and most forbidding mountain ranges in the world. To the
east, it opens into the vast wastes of the Gobi desert.
‘Silk Routes’ rather than
‘The Silk Road.’
“The use
of the plural above, ‘Silk Routes’ rather than the more familiar
‘Silk Road’, is deliberate. We are not dealing with a single entity
like Watling Street or the Appian Way, but with a complex network of roads and
tracks reaching right across Eurasia. There are some permanent nodes in the
network, such as Ch’ang-an where much of the silk was produced and Rome
where much of it was consumed; but the line taken by a particular caravan
depended on the weather, the economic situation and the political situation,
any of which might change with surprising suddenness.” Sitwell (1984), p.
174.
“The
middle and shortest route by Lou-lan became deserted because of the shifting of
the waters; but the southern, known in many stretches, was mentioned later by
Marco Polo in regions east of Khotan, by streams of chalcedony and jasper. Six
crossings between south and north are referred to in the Chinese annals, across
what is now the central desert of Taklamakan.
In these outer lands the
raid of a single enemy was enough to ruin an oasis for ever. ‘Many
travellers stick in the swamp. On the northern road, the Hiung-Nu fall upon
one. On the southern there is neither food nor water, and on many uninhabited
stretches there is hunger’: there was in fact a ten days’ trek
without habitation worth mentioning, and the settled places when reached were
too poor to afford the traveller sufficient provision for the way. The Chinese
solved the problem through colonies of soldier-peasants: an imperial komissar
was established to watch over crops and harvests and care for the visiting
ambassadors; and the northern route in the second half of the first century
B.C. came to take eight days less than the southern, while the Hiung-Nu were
kept down.” Stark (1968), pp. 189-190.
The confusion surrounding the names of
the routes.
Not surprisingly, the routes have
frequently been confused in the literature. This is particularly because what
was called the “Northern Route” in the two Han histories, is called
the “Central Route” in the Weilue, and we have mention of
both a “New Route” and a “New Route of the North” in
the Weilue.
There are, in fact, three main
caravan routes around and across the Taklamakan Desert, and one to the north of
it, described in the Weilue. Also briefly mentioned are the two
secondary north-south routes joining the Southern Route with the Central Route,
and the maritime route. See Appendix F.
“Yu Huan
shows here how the route which led from Hami to Barkol and then to Gucheng
(Guchen) to rejoin the Central Route at Kucha by turning off abruptly to the
south after leaving Gucheng to cross the Bogdo ola mountains and reaching
Turfan. Meanwhile there remains one obscure point for me : why Yu Huan says
that the Northern Route rejoins the Central Route only at Kucha? He should have
said, it would seem, that the two routes coincided from Gaochang (Turfan), but
this is not a sufficient reason to presume that the Central Route had another
lay-out than the one we have determined. – In the detailed examination Yu
Huan makes later on of the three routes, he does not show that the Northern
route fits together with the Central Route, but it proceeds to the Wusun, that
is, as far as the Ili Valley. It is thus clearly proven that the new route
established by the Chinese in the 2nd year of our era was the one
which passed to the north of the Tianshan by Urumchi, Manass, Kur-kara-wusu [=
modern Wu-su or Usu. 84o 40’ E; 44o 26’ N],
then crossed the Iren Shabirgan [Erenhaberga Shan] mountains by the Dengnul
[Talki Pass or Ak Tash Davan?] Pass to enter the Ili Valley (cf. Documents
sur les T’ou-kiue occidentaux, pp. 12-13). – As one can see
from the above, the three routes mentioned by Yü Huan basically correspond
with those which the Imperial Commissioner Pei Ju 裵矩 described in
his “Treatise with Maps on the Western Countries” 西域圖記
(Suishu, chap. LXVII, p. 5 b) around the year 608 of our era: “The
Northern Route goes through Yiwu 伊吾 (Hami), passes by Pulei Lake 蒲類 (Lake
Barkol), the Tiele 鐵勒 (Tölös) tribes, the court of the Khaghan
of the Tujue 穾厥可汘庭 (the Borotala or Ili Valley), crosses the rivers
which flow towards the north 北流河水 (the Chu, Syr Darya, and Amu Darya Rivers), and
arrives at the kingdom of Fulin (Byzantium), which is in contact with the
Western Sea. – The Central Route passes through Gaochang 高昌 (Yar-khoto,
near Turfan), Yanqi 焉耆 (Karashahr), Qiuci 龜玆 (Kucha),
Suole 疏勒 (Kashgar), crosses over the Congling 葱嶺 (Pamirs),
then crosses the kingdoms of Pohan 鏺汘 (Ferghana)
and Suduishana 蘇對沙那 (Osrushana = modern Ura Tyube), the kingdom of 康 Kang (Samarkand),
the kingdom of Cao 曹 (Ishtykan), the kingdom of He 何 (Koshania), the
large and small kingdoms of An 安 (Bukhara and Kharghan near Karminia; but it is
necessary here to reverse the order of the two terms, for the itinerary passes
through Kharghan before reaching Bukhara), the kingdom of Mu 穆 (Amol), and arrives
in Bosi 波斯 (Persia), where it contacts the Western Sea.
– The Southern Route passes through Shanshan 鄯善 (to the
south of Lop Nor), Yutian 于闐 (Khotan), Zhujubo 朱俱波
(Karghalik), Hepanto 唱 (read 喝)槃陀 (Tashkurgan), crosses over the Congling 葱嶺 (Pamirs),
then crosses Humi 護密 (Wakhan), Tuheluo 吐火羅
(Tokharestan), the Yida 挹怛 (Hephthalites), Fanyan 忛延 (Bamiyan),
the kingdom of Cao 漕 (Ghazni?; cf. LÉVI, in J.A.
Sept.-Oct. 1895, p. 375), and reaches the land of the northern Poluomen 北婆羅門
(Hindus), where it contacts the Western Sea. – The only differences which
turn up between these itineraries, and those of Yü Huan, come from, on the
one hand, the fact that the routes of Pei Ju go further to the west and, on the
other hand, the Southern Route described by Pei Ju emerges from the Pamirs in
Badakhshan, whereas the Southern Route of Yu Huan goes from the Pamirs into Kashmir
[but note that
Chavannes incorrectly identifies Jibin with Kashmir].” Translated from Chavannes (1905), p. 534,
n. 3.
The ‘New Route’ to Turfan
probably became an alternative after the Chinese lost control of Hami to the
Xiongnu. At the best of times this a difficult route north across the desert to
the northeast of Loulan, with little fodder or water available. Caravans could
have been supplied and supported from both Loulan and Turfan but only at
considerable expense.
The ‘New Route of
the North’ followed through the kingdoms beyond Hami, which stretch in a
long arc to the north of the Bogoda and Tianshan ranges to Wusun territory in
the west. There is no mention of where it begins, or of Hami.
Presumably, since Hami
was off-limits, one would first head to Turfan via the ‘New Route.’
Then, to reach Jimasa and territories to the east, one would cross directly
north across the Bogoda Mountains by a rather difficult track to Jimasa and
join the ‘New Route of the North’ there. If one wanted to travel
west, the route left Turfan and travelled along the relatively easy road to the
region of modern Urumchi, and then west along the ‘New Route of the
North’ to the north of the Tianshan range.
The nature of the trade.
“Sometime
after the death of Alexander, Chinese silk, transported by caravan through
central Asia and passed along by a chain of middlemen, started to filter
through to the Mediterranean, where its superiority to the nearest thing the
Greeks had, produced from wild Asia Minor silkworms, was swiftly recognized. In
the second half of the second century B.C., the Chinese became more active in
the trade, dispatching caravans on a regular basis. Starting from Paochi,
centre of a complex of roads, these moved inside the Great Wall by way of
T’ienshui, Lanchou and Wuwei to the western end of the wall and deep into
Chinese Turkistan; by 118-114 B.C., some ten caravans a year were making the
trip. At Anhsi between the Gobi desert and the Nan Shan mountains the route
forked into three branches to avoid the vast salt swamp in the Tarim Basin, two
looping to the north and one to the south. The southern loop and one of the
northern came together at Kashgar, then forked again to snake through the
difficult Pamir mountains; this stretch was more or less the halfway point to
the Mediterranean. All three rejoined at Merv to continue across the desert and
join up with the tracks that led through Persia and Mesopotamia to the sea.
Nobody went the whole distance. Somewhere between Kashgar and Balkh was a place
called Stone Tower, and here the Chinese turned their merchandise over to local
and Indian traders. The latter carried their share south to India to send it
the rest of the way by boat, the others plodded on into Persia, where they met
up with Syrians and Greeks who took care of the final leg.” Casson
(1974), pp. 123-124.
“The
whole Indian trade shifted gradually north-west because of the overland route
through Bactria, until the Hiung-Nu in A.D. 23 fell upon it and made it
impossible again for fifty years. In A.D. 73 the Chinese began to resuscitate
it, and again advanced along both sides of the great chain of oases of the
Tarim basin to ‘open the roads that lead to China and establish
peace’. Merchants along the trade line, from Parthia and Bactria and
India, sent their requests and prayers to the Celestial Court; and it was
during this renascence of the trade around A.D. 100, that the Syrian-Roman
merchants and the Chinese tried to link up their trade directly, and failed
because Parthia lay between.
At this time, the trade
was in its heyday: ‘peasant colonies were founded in the fertile lands;
inns and posts for changing horses were established along the main routes;
messengers and couriers travelled in every season of the year; and the Merchant
Strangers knocked daily on our gates to have them opened’. It was the
period of the Roman peace with Parthia and the never-to-be-repeated summit of
the Asiatic trade in the ancient world. By 127 A.D. the Tarim relapsed into
chaos, while traffic increased in the Persian Gulf or Aden as it waned in the
north: that there was any connection between the Chinese of the north (the
‘long-lived’ Seres of Lucian) and those of the south (the Sines),
was still undiscovered in Ptolemy’s day.” Stark (1968), p. 191.
“Unfortunately,
whether by land or sea, the contact between the two great cultures was always
tenuous. Shipments of Chinese goods came to the Mediterranean year in and year
out, cinnamon-leaf and camphor and jade and other items as well as silk, and
Graeco-Roman statuettes and jewellery and pottery made the journey the other
way, but rarely was there a direct exchange; in between were merchants from
other countries, particularly India, which not only lay astride the sea lanes
but was firmly linked by branch roads with the overland silk route. These
middlemen had solid information to pass on – it was they who supplied the
many place-names in Central Asia and the names of the Indonesian islands that
the geographers know now – but they were businessmen, not reporters. What
filtered back to the man in a Roman or Chinese street was mere fanciful
hearsay. The Romans thought the Chinese were all supremely righteous; the
Chinese thought westerners were all supremely honest. Kan Ying, sent as envoy
to Mesopotamia in A.D. 97, describes the people he met as ‘honest in
their transactions and without any double prices’ – probably the
first and last time that has ever been said about Near Eastern tradesmen. Kan
Ying, the embassy of An-tun [in 166 CE] – we
can number on the fingers of one hand the known occasions when westerners and
Chinese met face to face.” Casson (1974), pp. 125-126.
“The
Chinese are mild in character, but resemble wild animals in that they shun the
company of the rest of their fellow men and wait for traders to come to
them.” Pliny NH (a), p. 64 (VI, 54).
(a) The “Southern Route”
There were two branches of the Southern
Route between Dunhuang and Shanshan (northwest of Lop Nor). The first led
directly across the desert. It was short but difficult and dangerous. By the
middle of the first century CE, the Han were able to cut
off support from the Xiongnu and pacify the Er Jiang who lived in the
Altin-tagh ranges to the south. They were then able to make use of the
better-watered and sheltered, though longer, route further south. Aurel Stein
pointed out:
“A look
at the map shows that the route meant [in the Weilue] is the one which
skirts the high Altin-tagh range, and still serves as the usual connection
between Dunhuang and Charklik during that part of the year when the shorter
desert route is closed by the heat and the absence of drinkable water.”
Stein (1912), pp. 514-515.
The most feared stretches of desert were
between Cherchen and Khotan. Not only was there a lack of water and fodder but the
constant crossing of sand hills was very tiring for both man and beast.
“The desert itself is quite flat, a billowing sea of soft yellow
sand-dunes 5 to 30 m high. However, in some central areas, for example in the
west of the Keriya River, the dunes can rise to more than 200 metres high
– a tough challenge even for a camel caravan.”
From Khotan there were
several routes south: the one in the Weilue headed southwest across the
Pamirs and through Hunza and Gilgit (Xuandu – the notorious ‘Hanging
Passages’) to North India and Jibin (Kapisha-Gandhāra). Branch
routes led south to Ladakh and Kashmir, northwest to Kashgar, and north along
the Khotan River join the ‘Middle Route’ near Aksu. The Weilue
informs us that an extension of the Southern Route extended right across India
to the Pandya kingdom at the southern tip of the sub-continent.
Although it is not known if the following
alternative route to India was in use this early, it is quite possible, and so
I will mention here for consideration:
“South of
the Southern Silk Road proper were more roads. One of them was the so-called
Qinghai Road that led from Lanshou to Xining (the present capital of Qinghai
Province), from whence it crossed the desert and reached the classic Southern
Silk road near Miran. Another was and extremely arduous trade route that led
from Xining in a south-westerly direction to Tibet, finally to reach Nepal and
India. This Tibetan Route was opened in the 5th century AD [and
perhaps earlier], even before Songsten Gampo (609-650) had politically unified
the Snowlands.” Baumer, p. 8. See also Ibid., p. 2.
Historical records suggest that from the
first century BCE until the second half of the third century CE the Tarim Basin experienced a relatively warm and wet period. This
caused faster melting of mountain glaciers, which thus supplied more water to
the rivers flowing down from the mountains into the Taklamakan desert. This, in
turn, made the Southern Route more feasible, and the high passes over the Pamir
and Karakoram Mountains somewhat easier to cross.
By the late third and
early fourth century this climatological process seems to have reversed itself,
making the Southern Route more difficult to cross. Caravans were forced to use
the longer middle and northern routes and even, when the northern nomads could
be controlled, to avoid the Tarim Basin altogether, and pass to the north of
the Tian Shan ranges. Stein (1921), p. 1524; Stein (1928), pp. 79, 435, 837;
Almgren (1962), p. 101; and Hoyanagi (1975), pp. 85-113; Bao et al. (2004).
Recent research has
confirmed these historical indications. Ice samples from the Guliya ice core
which is situated in the mountains about 150 km due south of Keriya have
provided valuable temperature and precipitation data for the region over the
past 2,000 years. They show that there was a relatively warm and wet period
before 270 CE rapidly followed by a cold dry period between
about 280 and 970 CE. Shi et al (1999), pp. 90-100.
“This
worsening of climatic conditions was not limited to the Tarim Basin alone, but
concerned all of China, which was plagued by periods of severe drought between
about CE 280 and CE 320. The
annals of the Western Jin (CE 265-316) report that, in
the year 309, the Yellow River and the Yangtsekiang (Changjiang) practically
ran dry and could be crossed on foot.” Baumer (2000), p. 3.
In spite of its difficulties, the Southern
Route remained important. It was better protected than the Central and Northern
routes from raids by the northern nomads. It was by far the shortest and most
direct route to the jade centres of Khotan and Yarkand. It remained passable,
if difficult, for individuals and smaller caravans travelling to India, over
the notorious Karakoram Pass, and human porters could even travel through the
Wakhan corridor to Gandhāra and southern Afghanistan.
Not quite halfway
between Kashgar and Yarkand, between modern Yengisar and Qizil, a route turned
west and headed towards Badakshan as described in the Tarikh-i-Rashidi:
“The
distance from Káshghar to Yángi-Hisár is six statute [shari]
farsákhs. At about six farsákhs from
Yángi-Hisár is an insignificant hamlet called Kará
Chanák,1 in front of which flows another stream called
Shahnáz, which waters several [other] places. The valley of the Shahnáz
lies in the western range, and the [high] road from Káshgar to
Badakhshán runs through this valley.” Elias (1895), pp. 295-296.
By far the easiest routes from China to
the Turfan oasis – “Nearer (or Southern) Jushi,” as well as
to the Jimasa region (“Further Jushi”), went through Hami (Yiwu).
Because of its critical strategic importance, Hami changed hands between the
Xiongnu and China numerous times. China finally lost control of it to the
Xiongnu in 151 CE, and did not regain it for over 400 years.
South to India over the ‘Hanging Passages.’
The detailed account of the Southern Route
given in the Hanshu (CICA, pp. 97-99) mentions that, between
Pishan (= modern Pishan) and Jibin (Kapisha-Gandhāra) there is a small
kingdom called Wucha, said to be 1,340 li (557 km) to the southwest of
Pishan, just before the route turned west into the dreaded ‘Hanging
Passages.’
Xuandu 縣度 [Hsüan-tu,
often incorrectly given as Hsien-tu], from: 縣度 xuan =
‘to suspend”, ‘hang’, ‘dangerous’ + 度 du = GR
11640a: “7. – To cross (the water by ferry). To cross
(over)].” From this we get the infamous, ‘Hanging Passages’
– the narrow and dangerous hanging footpaths of the Hunza region.
It is significant that
Xuandu is not listed as a guo (= ‘kingdom’ or ‘country’)
in any of the ancient Chinese texts. It is clearly described as a locality, not
a state. It has long been recognised that it refers to the terrifying hanging
pathways, locally known as rafiks, which are so characteristic of the
route through the Hunza valley to Gilgit. The most difficult passage in the
whole Hunza valley is the section south of the junction of the Misgar and the
Hunza rivers. See, for example, Chavannes (1905), p. 529, n. 5.
Although it was
impossible to take pack animals over this route, a route barely practicable for
people on foot, it was by far the shortest route from the Tarim Basin to
Gandhara and Jibin in what are now northern Pakistan and southeastern
Afghanistan. The Hanshu describes Xuandu as follows:
The Hanshu describes Xuandu
(Hunza/Gilgit) as follows:
“What is
termed the Suspended Crossing is a rocky mountain; the valley is impenetrable,
and people traverse the place by pulling each other across with ropes.” CICA,
pp. 99-100, and n. 169.
The Hanshu gives the distance from
the seat of the Protector General at Weili near Kucha to Wucha as 4,892 li
(2,035 km), and to Xuandu, the ‘Hanging Passages’, 5,020 li
(2,088 km). This would indicate that Xuandu was only 128 li (53 km) west
of Wucha, placing it in present day Ghujal, or ‘Upper Hunza,’ which
is on the way to the Shimshal Pass to the west, or the Kunjerab Pass to the
northwest. The most difficult passage in the Hunza valley is the section south
of the junction of the Misgar and the Hunza rivers.
“Rafiks,
the local name for such galleries, are fastened to the sheer cliffs by branches
of trees forced into the fissures of the rock and covered with small stones.
Elsewhere natural narrow ledges are widened by flat slabs packed over them. In
some places the rafiks “turn in sharp zigzags on the side of cliffs where
a false step would prove fatal, while at others again they are steep enough to
resemble ladders. To carry loads along these galleries is difficult enough, and
. . . for ponies, sure-footed as they are, wholly impassable.” Even his
[Aurel Stein’s] terrier, Yolchi Beg, so nimble on the rocks of Mohand
Marg, was fearful and allowed himself the indignity of being carried. Rafiks
alternated “with passages over shingly slopes and climbs over rock-strewn
wastes.” To negotiate this terrain, the “baggage animals were left
behind [at Chalt] and coolies taken for the rest of the journey up to the
Taghdumbash Pamir.” Mirsky (1977), p. 121.
“The next
day’s march [from Khuabad] to Misgar, he had been warned, would be the
worst part of the route. By starting before dawn while the river was still low
enough to ford, he avoided a long detour and a perilous crossing on a rope
bridge. Then the going reached a climax of “scramble up precipitous faces
of slatey rocks . . . with still more trying descents to the riverbed”;
slower still was the progress along rafiks clinging to cliffs hundreds of feet
above the river. But the previous five days had toughened him, and he felt
fresh when he emerged from the rocky gorge to an open valley. . . . Here
he discharged the “hardy hillmen who had carried our impedimenta over
such trying ground without the slightest damage.” Beyond, the route was
open to baggage animals at all seasons.” Mirsky (1977), p. 125.
The Kushans are thought to have controlled
the whole region from the late 1st century and for most or all of the 2nd
century CE. Chavannes’ mention in Ban Chao’s
biography that, “(Ban) Chao then crossed the Congling and got as far as
Xuandu.” There is no indication of the date or any other details. One can
only assume that the reference was to a brief foray by Ban Chao to the borders
of Kushan territories – perhaps to deliver a message – or just to
scout out the territory for himself. See Chavannes (1906), p. 237.
From Xuandu (Hunza–Gilgit) there were
four main routes one could take:
1. south along
the Astor river and across the Burzil Pass into Kashmir,
2. a difficult
route along the Indus River Valley to Taxila,
3. through the
Swat Valley to Peshawar or,
4. via Chitral
to Jibin (Kapisha-Gandhāra), and on to Wuyi (Kandahar) or Gaofu
(Kabul/Kabulistan).
“Surrounded
thus by granite precipices and huge wastes of ice and snow, affording only a
hazardous passage during a few summer months into the neighbouring countries,
Hunza-Nagar has but one vulnerable point on the southern part of the Hindoo
Koosh, the ravine of the Kanjut River; while the junction of that torrent with
the Gilgit River is the one gateway of the country assailable for an invading
force. Even this entrance is practically closed during the summer months; for
then the river, swollen by the melting snows, becomes an unfordable and raging
torrent, overflowing the whole bottom of the valley at many points, so that the
only way left by which one can ascend the gorge is a rough track high up upon
the cliff-side, carried along narrow ledges, and overhanging frightful
precipices – a road fit only for goats and cragsmen, which could be
easily held by a handful of determined men against a large force; while at this
season the river can only be crossed by means of the frail twig-rope bridges,
which will support but two or three men, and can be cut adrift with a knife in
a few moments.
Such is the road into
Hunza-Nagar from our side; but at the head of the Kanjut Valley there is a
group of comparatively easy and low passes, leading across the Hindoo Koosh on
to the Tagdambash Pamir, in Chinese territory, which are used by the Kanjuts on
their raiding expeditions. . . . ” Knight (1893), pp. 345-346.
“As one
ascends the valley beyond Hunza. . . .
It is only at certain points, where passage along the cliffs would
otherwise be absolutely impossible for the best cragsmen, that any steps have
been taken to open a road, and then it is but the narrowest scaffolding thrown
from ledge to ledge. One comes upon position after position of immense natural
strength in this gorge, where the dangerous and only path passes under stout
sangas, which could be held by a handful of men against a host. Even as the
Kanjuts had left the approaches to their valley below Nilt as difficult of
access as possible, so had they done here, at the outlet of their country on to
the Pamirs, rendering it almost impossible for an enemy to invade them from
either direction.” Ibid., pp. 488-489.
“Strategically
the Pamirs had always been written off as too bleak and barren to appeal to the
Russians and too formidable for them to cross. Wood’s story suggested
nightmarish conditions, which the Mirza’s travels fully supported. And,
in April, Gordon found the going quite as bad, the wind unbearable, the snow
freezing to their faces as it fell, and fuel and provisions desperately short.
But from the Wakhi people he heard a different story. In summer the grazing
was, as Marco Polo had recorded, some of the best in the world. Moreover,
though mountainous, it was nothing compared to the Karakorams or the Kun Lun.
The Pamirs, he was told, ‘have a thousand roads’. With a guide you
could go anywhere and, in summer, considerable forces might cross without
difficulty. The Chinese had done it in the past, the Wakhis had recently sent a
contingent across to Kashgar, and the Russians might do it in the future.
Finally, and most
important of all, it was discovered that the passes leading south from the
Pamirs over the Hindu Kush to Chitral, Gilgit and Kashmir were insignificant.
This was so disconcerting that Gordon, ever discreet, omitted all mention of it
in his published account. The discovery was made by Biddulph who, while the
others explored the Great Pamir, made a ‘lonely journey by the Little
Pamir’ (a misprint – in Gordon’s book actually has it as a
‘lovely journey’). In the process he climbed the northern slopes of
the Hindu Kush and ascertained that at least two passes constituted veritable
breaks in the mountain chain. One you could ride over without ever slowing from
a gallop and both had artillery transported across them. To these Gordon added
another ‘easy pass’ conducting from Tashkurgan to Hunza.”
Keay (1977), pp. 257-258.
“Communication
with Badakhshan is easy [from Gilgit and region] by the Darkot and Warogil
Passes, which are the lowest depressions in the great Hindu Kush and Karakorum
chains from Bamian on the west to the unknown passes of Tibet on the
east.” Neve (1945), p. 132.
“And in
those days [the journey from Gilgit to Kashmir], before ever Mr. Knight was
there, before a regular road was made, when even the Indus had to be crossed by
a rope bridge, and when the only track led by crazy wooden galleries along the
sheer face of the most dreadful precipices, the journey was an experience well
worth having and well worth talking about.” Younghusband (1909), p. 161.
“Gilgit,
the northernmost outpost of the Indian Empire, covers all the passes over the
Hindoo Koosh, from the easternmost one, the Shimshal, to those at the head of
the Yasin River, in the west. It will be seen, on referring to a good map, that
all these passes descend to the valleys of the Gilgit River and its
tributaries. But the possession of the Gilgit Valley does more than this: it
affords us a direct communication through Kashmir territory to the protected
State of Chitral. . . . ” Knight (1893), pp. 290-291.
From Gilgit a relatively easy route,
accessible to pack animals for most of the year, led to Mastuch in the Upper
Chitral Valley. From here one can head either west into Badakshān or south
to Chitral.
From Chitral the
relatively easy route ran through ancient Hadda (near modern Jalalabad) to
Peshawar, the ancient city (where Buddhist accounts tell us Kanishka made his
winter capital), and then to northern India; or directly southwest towards
Ghazni, Kandahar, and the Persian Gulf.
“Westward from Gilgit is the
country of Chitral, distinguished as Upper and Lower. The latter, which is nearest
to the Hindu Kosh, is situated on a river flowing from a lake called Hanu-sar,
and ultimately falling into the river of Kabul. The country is rough and
difficult. The Mastuch, as the capital is termed in the language of the
country, is situated on the left bank of the river. It contains a bazar, with
some Hindu shopkeepers, and is as large as Mozeffarabad, containing between
four and five hundred houses: slavery prevails here. . . .
The Mastuch, or capital
of Upper Chitral, is situated in the same valley as that of Lower Chitral, at
about three days’ march, and about thirty miles north-west from Gilgit.
It stands upon a river, and consists of about four hundred houses, with a fort,
on a moderately extensive plain, from whence roads lead to Peshawar,
Badakhshan, and Yarkand. The mountains in the neighbourhood are bare, and much
snow falls: the climate, however, upon the whole, is temperate. Some traffic
takes place with Badakhshan and Yarkand, whence pearls, coral, cotton baftas,
and chintzes, boots and shoes, and metals are imported: horses are also much
brought, and tea, but the latter is not much in use. The chief return is in
slaves, kidnapped from the adjacent districts, or, when not so procurable, the
Raja seizes and sells his own subjects. Soliman Shah, the Raja, resides chiefly
at Yasin, which is not so large as the capital, but is better situated for the
command of the country. . . . West
from Yasin is the Darband, or fortified pass, of Chitral. . . . ”
Moorcroft and Trebeck (1841), pp. 268-270.
Both Hadda (or Hidda – near modern
Jalalabad) and Kapisha (near modern Begram) were probably considered part of
the territory of Jibin at this time. See: Appendix K.
(b) The “Central Route”
or “Middle Route.”
The Central Route headed west from the
Yumen (‘Jade Gate’) Frontier Post, then northwest to the ancient
town of Loulan, to the north of Lop Nor, and then on via the now-dry Kum (or
Kuruk) Darya and Konche Darya to the region of modern Korla, where it joined
the route coming from Turfan.
This route was probably
preferred for large caravans because of the ready availability of water. The
importance of this route is underscored by the recent discovery of eleven
beacon towers along the banks of the Konche Darya (Kongque River):
Great Wall extends to Xinjiang, 500 km longer:
archeologists (02/22/2001)
The Great Wall
of China is 500 kilometers longer than the earlier recorded length, according
to archeological findings released in Urumqi recently.
The new findings show
that the Great Wall extends to the Lop Nur region in northwest China's Xinjiang
Uygur Autonomous Region, instead of previously acknowledged Jiayu Pass in Gansu
Province.
Lop Nur now is a
desolate desert region where China had established nuclear test facilities.
Mu Shunying, a research
fellow with the Xinjiang Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology,
discovered during a field survey conducted in 1998 an earthen wall stretching
from western Yumen Pass in Gansu Province to the northern edge of Lop Nur.
Luo Zhewen, president of
the China Society of Cultural Heritage, said, "There is no doubt this is
part of the Great Wall as it consists of the city wall and beacon towers,
forming a complete defense system."
The wall is identical to
the sections at Jiayu Pass and Yumen Pass in terms of architectural style and
function. However, this newly found section was made with yellow sandy stone
and jarrah branches found locally, he added. Luo, 77, is China's top Great Wall
expert.
Mu said it's obvious
that the new find is a man-made wall built for the purpose of defense, as its
shape and size resemble the other sections of the wall. Moreover, a large
number of arrowheads have been found near the new site which indicates battles
took place nearby, Mu said. Great Wall Extends to Xinjiang, 500 km longer. The
Great Wall is a military installation built some 2,000 years ago. It has been
renovated by numerous dynasties in the years following the Qin Dynasty, when
Emperor Qin Shihuang ordered to link up separated wall sections.
With the addition of the
new section found in Xinjiang, the total length of the Great Wall would be
7,200 kilometers. The Great Wall was listed as a World Heritage site by the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in
1987.
According to historical
records, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220) mobilized 600,000
laborers to build a wall from Dunhuang to Yanze, the present site of Lop Nur.
The massive construction project is illustrated in frescos at the Dunhuang
Grottoes.
During a recent tour to
Lop Nur, a Xinhua reporter saw the new section of wall, which undulates
westward at heights ranging from one to three meters, with some portions
completely missing. The lower part of some of this section is covered by reeds,
jarrah and other kinds of plants that live in arid areas.
The portion of the Great
Wall in eastern China was made of brick, while most parts of the wall in
western China were made of yellow sandy soil and jarrah branches.
Luo said the Great Wall
in Xinjiang was built to protect merchants traveling on the ancient Silk Road.
Wang Binghua, a
researcher of the Xinjiang Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, said
the Great Wall in Xinjiang runs parallel to the Silk Road. An official with the
State Administration of Cultural Heritage said the state will further
investigate this valuable historical site and take measures to protect it.
Experts believe the
newly discovered segment of wall is not likely to be the end of the Great Wall,
as beacon towers continue to appear along the Kongque River, pass through
Wulei, the site of the prefecture government of the western region during the
Han Dynasty, and extend to Kashi in southwestern Xinjiang. Eleven beacon towers
have been seen at the bank of the Kongque River.
The Lop Nur River, which
supplied water for Lou Lan, a busy commercial city on the ancient Silk Road,
has dried up and civilization there moved elsewhere in China. The kingdom of
Lou Lan was ruled by the government of the Han Dynasty. Troops of the Han
Dynasty were stationed in Lou Lan. (Xinhua) Downloaded on 13 May 2001 from:
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cover/storydb/2001/02/22/cn-wall.222.html.
It has even been suggested that it might once have been possible to transport
goods by water from Loulan to Yarkand or Kashgar, but there is no mention of
this in the historical sources:
“From
about 120 BC to AD 330, the MIDDLE SILK ROAD was regarded as the preferred
caravan route. It crossed the dreaded Lop Desert from Dunhuang to Loulan, then
led to today’s Korla, and from thence west to Kucha and Aksu and once
again to Kashgar. This route had the advantage of making it possible to use a
barge from Loulan on the Kum Darya (also called the Kuruk Darya), and then on
the Konche Darya to Korla. The meaning of these two river names refers to the
conditions in the 19th and early 20th centuries, for
Kuruk Darya means “Dry river” and Kum Darya “Sand
River”. According to Hedin’s explorations, during the first few
centuries of our era the Tarim also flowed into the Kuruk Darya, so that
perhaps in those days it was possible to transport wares on water from Loulan
to Yarkand or Kashgar.4 It is not known whether this waterway was
actually used in ancient times or whether the overland route was
preferred.”
4.
Sven Hedin, Scientific results of a journey in Central Asia 1899-1902,
Stockholm, 1904-1907, vol. II, p. 263.
Baumer (2000),
p. 9 and note 4. Baumer goes on to say that:
“The
middle route could be used during winter only, not merely because the heat was
less oppressive, but most of all because it was easier to take along water
reserves in the form of ice blocks. This stretch offered no springs, and water
was so scarce en route that it would never have been enough for an entire
caravan.” Although he does not say so, he must be referring only to the
period after the Kuruk and Konche rivers dried up – a process which
probably began after the severe droughts which occurred from c. 270 AD
onward.”
Zhang Qian probably took the Central Route
in c. 119 BCE when he travelled to the court of the Wusun near
Issyk-kol with 300 men, about 600 horses and myriads of cattle and sheep plus
silks and gold. See Shiji 123 – translated in Watson (1961), p.
272, and Stein (1928), I, p. 341.
The Weilue says that the
‘Central Route,’ after reaching “ancient Loulan and, turning
west, goes to Qiuci(Kucha), and on to the Congling mountains.”
The ‘Central
Route’ probably became the main route to the west whenever the Chinese
lost control of Hami and/or Turfan. Fortunately, the section of the route
between Loulan, to the north of Lop Nor, and Kucha is now well established:
“. . . .
Dr. Hedin on his journey of 1896 to the terminal Tarīm had found an
obviously ancient route line leading from Korla to Ying-p’an, where the
dried-up bed of the Kuruk-daryā branches off towards Lou-lan, marked by a
series of big watch-towers. His description of them strongly supported the
belief that this line of towers dated back to the period when the ancient
Chinese route from Tun-huang to Lou-lan and thence to the northern oases of the
Tarīm Basin was first opened. The careful survey of them which I was able
to make in the spring of 1915 on my way from the Kuruk-daryā to Korla has
fully confirmed this belief. It has furnished conclusive evidence that these towers
served as watch and signal stations along the road which connected Lou-lan with
the Chinese administrative posts and military colonies established under the
Emperor Wu-ti in the oases dotting the southern foot of the T’ien-shan.
The chief, if not the
sole, danger which threatened the safety of this great military and trade route
came, as the account of the Former Han Annals shows, from the irruptions of the
Hsiung-nu, or Huns. For these, as we have seen, the open Kara-shahr valley,
with its easy approaches from the Yulduz and other great camping grounds north,
must have at all times been the main gate. Experience gained during centuries
on their far-flung northern borders must have proved to the Chinese commanders
that the best safeguard against such attacks and raids lay in securing quick
warning which would allow for timely preparation for defence. Korla and the
adjacent parts of the route lay certainly nearest to the ground whence the
danger of incursions threatened, and if they were to be adequately protected, a
line of signal-stations pushed out to the north-east into the Kara-shahr valley
would certainly suggest itself.” Stein (1928) Vol. III, p. 1227.
“The
special interest to us of the Wei lio’s notice of ‘the
central route’ lies in the fact that it makes a definite reference to the
Lou-lan Site, almost contemporary with the documents found there, by its
mention of ‘the ancient Lou-lan’, and that it details some of the
chief stages on the desert journey by which the site was reached by travellers
from the ‘Jade Gate’ and the westernmost extension of the
‘Great Wall’. The position of the last of these stages, the Lung-tui
or ‘Dragon Mounds’, was first determined by me, in the course of my
explorations of 1914, when I traced the line of the old Chinese route where it
crossed the salt-encrusted ancient Lop Sea, some forty miles to the north-west
of the station L.A.”. Stein (1921), p. 419.
“By
deduction, one can accept that the route called ‘Central’ in the Weilue
must coincide with the route called ‘Northern’ in the Hanshu.
The fact that Yu Huan tells us that formerly there were only two known routes
to the western countries, but that now a third, more northerly route, had been
opened. Thus the only new route is the ‘Northern Route’. The
‘Central’ and ‘Southern’ routes are the same as those
already followed during the period of the Former Han. We are, therefore, right
to consider the ‘Central Route’ according to the Weilue as
identical with the route called ‘Northern’ in the Hanshu. .
. . ” Translated from Chavannes (1905), p. 531, n. 1.
The Hanshu describes the
‘Northern Route’ (i.e. the Weilue’s ‘Central
Route’) as follows:
“The one
[route] which starts from the royal court of Nearer Chü-shih [Turfan],
running alongside the northern mountains and following the course of the river
west to Shu-lo [Kashgar], is the Northern Route. To the west, the Northern
Route crosses the Ts’ung-ling and leads to Ta Yüan [Ferghana],
K’ang-chü and Yen-ts’ai.” CICA, p. 73.
“But it
still remains for us to fix the location in detail of such intermediate stages
as the text names, in the light of the knowledge now gained of the actual
ground which the route crossed. For convenience of reference I may quote again
that portion of the passage [from the Weilue] which concerns us here :
‘The central route is the one, which, starting from Yü-mên
kuan, sets out on the west, leaves the well of the Protector-General, turns
back at the northern extremity of the San-hung (‘Three
Ridges’) [desert of] sand, passes the Chü-lu granary ; then,
on leaving from the Sha-hsi well, turns to the north-west, passes
through the Lung-tui (‘Dragon Mounds’), arrives at the
ancient Lou-lan.’ Stein (1921), Vol. II, p. 555.
Apparently, a short cut, not mentioned in
the Weilue or in the Han Histories, also existed between the region of
Loulan and Miran (= Yuni – the early capital of Shanshan). At Miran
(ancient Yuni) it rejoined the Southern Route via Khotan to Kashgar. For the
identification of Miran as Yü-ni, the ‘Old Town’, the early
capital of Shan-shan, see Stein (1921a), I, pp. 326 ff.
This route was probably
only used when political or other pressures demanded, as it crossed over 190 km
of waterless salt crust, and was only really feasible in winter, when water
could be carried in the form of blocks of ice:
“Another
land route branched off near Loulan to Miran, where it joined the southern
route. This section from Dunhuang to Loulan and Miran was rediscovered by Sir
Aurel Stein in 1914. It was the shortest connection with Shule [Kashgar]. Moreover,
since the Han dynasty it was protected by watch-towers from which could be
transmitted smoke signals during the day and fire signals during the night. At
the same time, however, it was very trying for men and animals, for a 190 km
wide, waterless wasteland across the Lop Desert had to be traversed on a hard
salt crust.5
It was probably no
better than now, a fact reported by Hedin as well as by Stein; namely, that the
sensitive soles of the camels’ hoofs would be injured by the razor-sharp
edges of the ground surface, until blood appeared. Then would come the painful
operation of “re-soling” the camels to make them fit to go on.
Pieces of leather literally would be stitched over the camels’ wounded
heels!”
5.
Marc Aurel Stein, Innermost Asia, Oxford, 1928, vol. 1, p. 285.
Baumer (2000),
p. 9 and n. 5.
From Korla the route led to Kucha,
and Aksu, rejoining the Southern Route at Kashgar. The Weilue does not
give details of the route past this point but it does list two
‘kingdoms’, Juandu and Xiuxiu, as dependencies of Kashgar. Both of
these places (but with the variant Xiuxun) are mentioned in the Hanshu
as being on the route from Kashgar to the Da Yuezhi, and both were near forks
in the road which led to Ferghana (Da Yuan).
Stein (1928), Vol. II,
pp. 849-851 makes a very strong case for placing Juandu in the region of modern
Irkeshtam, about 200 km west of Kashgar, on the modern border between China and
Kyrgyzstan. This is near a major fork in the route here. One branch headed over
the Terek Pass to Ferghana; the other led down the Alai valley, past
Daraut-kurghān and Chat (where Stein locates Xiuxiu/Xiuxun – see
notes 9.18 and 9.19), into the valley of the Surkhab (or Kizil-su), and then
probably via the huge fortified Kushan city of Shahr-i Nau (40 km west of the
modern Dushanbe – see note 9.22), and thence on to Termez, where it
crossed the Oxus (or Amu Darya) and on to ancient Bactra (modern Balkh).
Interestingly, the name
Juandu can be translated as ‘Tax Control’, a function which
Irkeshtam retains to this day. As Stein and many others have pointed out, the
famous ‘Stone Tower’ of Ptolemy, where caravans from the west
off-loaded their cargoes, must have been located not far to the west of
Irkeshtam, in the Alai trough.
“But during the centuries before and after the beginning of the Christian
era, when Baktra was a chief emporium for the great silk trade passing from
China to Persia and the Mediterranean, all geographical factors combined to
direct this trade to the route which leads from Kāshgar to the Alai valley
and thence down the Kizil-su or Surkh-āb towards the Oxus. Nature has
favoured the use of this route, since it crosses the watershed between the Tārīm
basin and the Oxus where it is lowest. Moreover, it has, in Kara-tēgin, a
continuation singularly free from those physical difficulties which preclude
the valleys draining the Pāmīrs farther south from serving as
arteries of trade. According to the information received at Daraut-kurghān
and subsequently on my way through Kara-tēgin, the route leading mainly
along or near the right bank of the Kizil-su is practicable for laden camels
and horses at all seasons right through as far as Āb-i-garm. From there
routes equally easy lead through the Hissār hills to the Oxus north of
Balkh.” Stein (1928), Vol. II, p. 848.
“Topographical
facts, climactic conditions and local resources all support the conclusion that
along the great natural thoroughfare of the Alai trough, which skirts the high northern
rim of the Pamirs from east to west and is continued lower down by the fertile
valley of the Kizil-su or Surkh-ab, “the Red River,” there once
passed the route which the ancient silk traders coming from China and the Tarim
basin followed down to the middle Oxus. Of this route Ptolemy, the great
geographer of the second century A.D., has preserved for us an important and
much-discussed record of Marinus of Tyre, his famous predecessor. This
describes the progress made in the opposite direction by the trading agents of
“Maës the Macedonian called Titianus” as they travelled from
Baktra, the present Balkh, to the “country of the Seres,” or China,
for the sake of their silk.
There
is no need here to discuss the details which this record indicates as to the
directions followed by the route. That it led up from the Oxus to the Alai had
been established long ago by Sir Henry Yule, that great elucidator of early
travel, when he proved that “the valley of the Komedoi,” through
which the ascent toward Imaos is said to have led, could be no other than
Kara-tegin, the valley of the Surkh-ab. Medieval Arab geographers still knew it
by the name of Kumedh. The Kara-tegin
valley and its eastern continuation, the trough of the Alai, offer in fact the easiest
line of communication from the Oxus to the Tarim basin. But the advantages of
the physical features which make the Alai particularly suited to serve as a
natural highway between the two were brought home to me best by what the actual
journey along it showed most clearly.
For
fully seventy miles from where the Russian military road crosses it the open
trough of the Alai stretches with an unbroken width of from six to eleven miles
at its floor down to the Kirghiz village of Daraut-kurghan. Eastward for
another twenty miles up to the Taun-murun saddle, where the route from the
Kashgar side enters the Alai, the “thalweg” is equally wide and
easy. Climactic conditions, moister than on the Pamirs to the south, provide
everywhere ample steppe vegetation. Hence the Alai forms the great summer
grazing ground for thousands of Kirghiz nomads who actually move up there from
the plains of Farghana with their flocks, camels and horses. Well did I
remember their picturesque caravans with camels carrying rich carpets, felts
and other comfortable possessions of nomadic households as I had met them on
their regular migration when I travelled early in June 1901 from Irkesh-tam to
Osh and Andijan in Farghana. Now the warmth of the summer had made their camps
seek the higher side valleys for the young grass, and thence they would descend
later in the season to graze along the main valley. All the way the great snowy
range to the south, with Mount Kaufmann [now known as “Lenin Peak” or “Pik
Lenina” – 7,134 m or 23,406 ft]
rising to close on 23,000 feet, presented grand panoramic views in the
distance.
Long
before reaching Daraut-kurghan, I came at an elevation of about 9,000 feet upon
traces of former cultivation and remains of roughly built stone dwellings such
as are occupied now by the semi-nomadic Kirghiz lower down during the winter
months. similarly, on the Kashgar side cultivation is to be found at Irkesh-tam
and above it to the same elevation. Thus wayfarers of old could be sure of
finding shelter and some local supplies all along this ancient route except for
a distance of less than seventy miles on the highest portion of the Alai.
Though the snow lies deep on the Alai from December to February, the route
would be practicable even then just as the Terek pass (12,700 feet), much
frequented from Irkesh-tam to Farghana, is now at that season, provided there
were sufficient traffic to keep the track open.
Such
trade between the Tarim basin and the middle Oxus as was once served by the
route through Kara-tegin and the Alai no longer exists. Balkh and the rest of
Afghan Turkistan to the south of the Oxus have long ceased to see traffic
passing from China. What little local trade comes up Karategin from the side of
the Oxus proceeds from Daraut-kurghan to Marghilan or Andijan in Farghana,
while exports from the Kashgar side find their way across the Terek pass to
these places on the Russian railway.
Daraut-kurghan,
where I was obliged to make a short halt for the sake of arrangements about
transport and supplies, is a small place at the point where the Kara-tegin
valley opens out toward the Alai. A Russian Customs post here guarded the
frontier of Bukhara territory. Three miles farther down lies the village of
Chat with a large, well-cultivated area and a ruined circumvallation of some
size occupied during the troubled times preceding the Russian annexation of
Turkistan. It is a point well suited for a large roadside station, and it is in
this vicinity that we may safely locate the famous “Stone Tower”
which the classical record preserved by Ptolemy mentions as the place reached
from Baktra “when the traveller has ascended the ravine,” i.e. the valley of Kara-tegin. [In note 9.19, which see, I locate
this site at Karakavak (Turkic for: ‘Black Poplar’ – Populus
nigra L.), about half way along the fertile pasturelands of the Alai Valley
at approximately 39o 39’ N; 72o 42’ E.,
rather than at Chat.]
It
is equally probable that “the station at Mount Imaos whence traders start
on their journey to Sera,” which Ptolemy’s account of the trade
route to China as extracted from Marinus mentions on the eastern limit of the
territory of the Nomadic Sakai, corresponds to the present Irkesh-tam. This is
still a place well-known to those who carry on the lively caravan trade from
Kashgar to Farghana and who face here the vagaries and exactions of the Chinese
and Russian Customs stations, both established close to each other.”
Stein (1931), pp. 223-227.
There can be little doubt that Juandu
(‘Tax Control’), in the region of modern Irkeshtam is ‘the
station (όρμητήριον) at Mount
Imaos, whence traders start on their journey to Sēra’, according to
Ptolemy. See Stein (1928), Vol. II, p. 850. See also the discussions by I. V.
P’iankov in the notes 9.18 on Juandu, and 9.19 on Xiuxiu/Xiuxun.
An
alternative route led from Tashkurgan (which could be reached either by heading
south from Kashgar or southwest from Yarkand – thus, either from the
‘Southern’ or the ‘Middle’ Routes) past the Pamir Lakes
via the Kushan-controlled regions of Wakhan and Badakhshān, and on to
ancient Bactria. This route joined up here with the major east-west caravan
routes leading from Chinese-controlled territory in the Tarim basin via the
Alai, and past modern Dushanbe to cross the Oxus and reach Baktra (modern
Balkh). See Stein (1931), pp. 232-242.
This route, called only the ‘New
Route’ in the Weilue, has been confused with the ‘New Route
of the North,’ by both Chavannes (1905), p. 533, n. 1, and Stein (1921),
Vol. II, pp. 705 ff). See also note 4.3.
The “New
Route,” after it left Yumen guan [‘Jade Gate Frontier Post’],
headed through Hengkeng [‘East-West Valley’], the wide Bēsh-toghrak
valley which heads west towards Lop Nor. The ‘New Route’ seems to
have followed the same path as the ‘Middle Route,’ for awhile, but
then turned north before, or at, Bēsh-toghrak itself, thus avoiding some
of the more difficult stages including the Sanlongsha [‘Three Sand
Ridges’] and the Longdui [‘Dragon Dunes’].
It then probably
continued north across the desert, west of Hami, via the Palgan Bulak, Yulghan
Bulak, and Biratar Bulak springs, to Lukchun in the Turfan oasis. Thence the
route headed west, rejoining the Central Route before Kucha. See: The Times
Atlas of the World.(1980), Map 24; The Contemporary Atlas of China.
(1989), pp. 17, 18.
The account of the
‘New Route of the North,’ on the other hand, ran via Hami to
Eastern Qiemi, a dependency of Further Jushi, which was located immediately
after crossing the gorge through the Bogda-shan mountains [called the Tianshan
during the Han period], just north of Qijiaojing [Ch’i-chiao-ching].
The ‘New Route of the North’ then headed along the northern slopes
of the massive range to the north of the Tarim Basin now called the Tianshan
(and not to the south of it, as in the ‘New Route’), then through
Wusun territory, and north of the Aral and Caspian Seas to reach Roman
territory on the Black Sea (thus avoiding Parthian taxes on the caravan
traffic).
Qijiaojing was usually
approached from the south via Hami (Yiwu). Here the road branched and one
either went west to the Turfan oasis, or north through the Bogda shan mountains
to the territory controlled by the king of Further Jushi in Dzungaria.
The route through Hami
was, and is, by far the easiest route to the north, and the only one with
sufficient supplies for large caravans, but there is no mention of it at all in
the itineraries of the Weilue.
This strongly
suggests that, at the time the information was gathered, Hami was out of bounds
to the Chinese having once again come under the power of the Xiongnu. The
Chinese captured and lost Hami several times during the Later Han Dynasty.
“China finally lost control of it to the Xiongnu in 151 CE and did not regain it for over 400 years.” See Sitwell (1984),
p. 174, in note 4.3.
This explains the urgent
development of a ‘New Route’ to provide communication with Turfan,
which avoided Hami, for China no longer controlled it.
The Hanshu says:
“During
the reign-period Yüan-shih [1-5 CE] there was a
new route in the further royal kingdom of Chü-shih. This led to the
Yü-men barrier from north of Wu-ch’üan, and the journey was
comparatively shorter. Hsü Pu, the Wu and Chi colonel, wanted to open up
this route for use, so as to reduce the distance by half and to avoid the
obstacle of the White Dragon Mounds. Ku-kou, king of the further state of
Chü-shih, realised that because of [the passage of] the road he would be
obliged to make provisions available [for Han travellers] and in his heart
thought that this would not be expedient. In addition, his lands were rather
close to those of the southern general of the Hsiung-nu. . . . [Ku-kou was
finally beheaded by the Chinese for disobedience].” CICA: 189-190,
192.
“I have
explained elsewhere how this ever-present threat of the Huns [from 121 BCE to 73 CE] from across the northernmost T’ien-shan
determined the direction of the ‘new northern route’ {note –
this should read, simply, the “New Route”} which the Chinese in
A.D. 2 opened from the ancient ‘Jade Gate’ in order to communicate
with ‘Posterior Chü-shih’ or the territory around the present
Guchen. To reach this ground, which, like Turfān immediately to the south,
had passed early under their control, the route via Hāmi would undoubtedly
have been the easiest. Yet Chinese administrative policy, was always disposed
to face physical difficulties rather than risks from hostile barbarians, kept
the new road well away from Hāmi and carried it through waterless desert
wastes which at least offered protection from those dreaded nomadic
foes.” Stein (1928), I, pp. 539-540.
This route left the Yumen frontier post
and then headed west through part or all of the Hengkeng (literally;
‘East-West Gully’ = the present Bēsh-toghrak valley), and then
directly north, past the still unidentified Wuchuan (‘Five Boats’),
some 300 km across the desert to the town of Gaochang, at the southern tip of
the Turfan Basin. From here it led on to Karashahr and joined the Middle Route
near modern Korla. Almost all authors place the Yiwu(lu) 伊吾盧 [I-wu-lu]
of the Han period in the region of modern Hami or Qumul.
“Known as
Khamil in Mongolian, the name of this important Silk Road town is transcribed
in Modern Standard Mandarin as Hami. It is famous for its succulent melons suffused
with fragrance and sweetness. Large amounts of cotton are also grown in
irrigated fields.” Mallory and Mair (2000), p. 13.
A few scholars, however, identify Yiwu
with the modern settlement of the same name (and written with the same
characters) about 160 km by road northeast of modern Hami, across the Karlik
range. See, for example, de Crespigny (1984), pp. 43 and 522, n. 71. This tiny
settlement is also known as Aratürük or Atürük. For the
derivation of the name Qāmul = modern Hami, see Bailey (1985), p.
10.
I have chosen the
traditional identification, however, placing it near modern Hami, on the
grounds that the strategically important and famously fertile Hami oasis is a
far more likely location for the State Farms the Han established at Yiwu than
the rather limited agricultural potential of the region surrounding modern
Yiwulu / Aratürük. Pelliot places Yiwu some 30 miles (48 km)
west of the town of modern Hami:
“In A.D.
73, the Chinese created a military colony in the region, with a walled city. .
. . The military colony of I-wu-lu or I-wu did not thrive like that of
Kao-chang..., and was abandoned with the whole of the region in 77. A new
occupation in 90 was still less durable. The third effort, in 131, was more
successful, but only for a time, and Qomul had already passed out of Chinese
reach at the end of the Han dynasty. . . . As to the I-wu-lu of the Han, which
the commentary of 676 on the two passages of the Hou Hanshu calls the
ancient small town of I-wu, it was located about 30 miles west of Qomul [Hami],
in the district of Na-shih....” Pelliot (1959), p. 155.
“Perhaps the earliest reference to Hami – or Yiwu, Yizhou or Kumul,
as it was variously known – was in a book, made of bamboo slips and bound
together with white silk, found in a second-century BC tomb in Henan Province.
This record, discovered in the third century, is an account of the
quasi-mythical travels of Emperor Mu, the fifth emperor of the Zhou Dynasty
(1027-256 BC), who, on returning from his visit to the Queen Mother of the
West, stayed in Hami for three days and received a present of 300 horses and
2,000 sheep and cattle from the local inhabitants.
Hami was considered by
the Chinese the key to access to the northwest, but they were not always
successful in keeping the city free of nomadic incursions. In 73 BC [sic
– should read AD] the Han general Ban Chao wrested the area from a
Xiongnu army and established a military and agricultural colony. . . .
Like Turpan, Hami
is in a fault depression about 200 metres (650 feet) below sea level, and
temperatures are extreme, from a high of 43o C (109o F)
in summer to a low of -32o C (-26o F) in winter.”
Bonavia (1988), pp. 105; 110-111.
“Cumul occupies a geographical position of great strategical importance.
Like Ansi on the south, so Cumul on the north is a stepping-off and
landing-place for all travellers who cross the inhospitable tract of Gobi
between the provinces of Kansu and Chinese Turkestan. The approach to the oasis
is by long and desolate stages, but from the moment that the traveller’s
foot touches watered land he is in the midst of beauty and luxuriant
agriculture, and for several miles before reaching the town the road leads
through fields and by farmhouses surrounded with elm and poplar trees.
Everything indicates prosperity and an abundance of every product.” Cable
and French (1943), p. 138.
“Beyond Hami the track led to Tsi-kio-king [Qijiaojing – not quite
200 km northwest of Hami], the Seven-Horned Well, which stands as sentinel
where north and south trade-roads divide, each taking its own way on one or the
other side of the dividing mountain range. The old well watches the South Road
disappear over a dismal gravel plain toward the burning oases of the Flame
Hills [north of Turfan], and the North Road enter the narrow tortuous defile
which cuts the Tienshan range of mountains in two. In times of peace
Seven-Horned Well was a dreary hamlet, but in war-time it became a strategic
desert outpost from which soldiers guarded three main arterial roads toward
Turfan, Hami and Urumchi. It has been a scene of fierce Gobi battles, and its
sands have many a time been reddened with blood and littered with the bodies of
men and carcasses of horses. Every invader covets its strategic position and
knows of its tamarisk growth, which, though smothered by sand, will supply
abundant fuel for his army. . . . The southern road kept south of the mountain
range, past East Salt Lake and West Salt Lake to Turfan, and over the steep
Dawan Pass to Urumchi. The northern road, however, led through a jagged cut in
the Tienshan where, for a long nine-hour stage, a narrow and almost level path
wound with innumerable turns between great bare crags and lofty granite cliffs,
emerging at last on the Dzungarian plain.” Ibid. 297-298.
“This constant liability to northern attack, from which Hami has suffered
whenever Chinese power in Central Asia weakened, is fully illustrated by its
chequered history, as recorded in the Chinese Annals, and right down to our own
times. . . . As regards the former [Han] period, it will suffice to point out
that within four years of the first establishment of a Chinese military colony
in A.D. 73 I-wu was lost again to the Hsiung-nu; reoccupied between A.D.
90-104, it suffered once more the same fate. The notice concerning the
re-establishment of a military colony there in A.D. 131 brings out clearly the
strategic value which the Chinese rightly attached to Hami. But obviously their
hold upon it ceased when imperial control over the ‘Western regions’
was abandoned after the middle of the second century.” Stein (1921), p.
1149.
From just north of Lop Nor all the way to
the Turfan Basin across the dreaded Gashun Gobi, there is a string of salt
springs. During the Han, and up until about 270 CE,
however, the whole region was much wetter than it is now, so they may have been
fresh enough at the time to provide water for the camels, at least. Wild
Bactrian camels still live in the area and have apparently adapted so they can
drink the water from the salt springs:
“There is no fresh water in the Gashun Gobi, only salt springs. No
humans, not even the hardy nomad, can survive in this utterly barren area of
over 1,750 square kilometres. The only inhabitant of this huge space is the
wild Bactrian camel. Far removed from contact with domestic Bactrians and fully
adapted to drinking salt water, the camels migrate from water point to water
point, some of which are over 100 kilometres apart.” Hare (1998), p. 80.
As this route was protected from the raids
of the Xiongnu by the empty desert to its east, and because it was less than
half the distance of the difficult, but better-watered, route through Loulan,
Korla and Karashahr to Turfan, it may have proved economical for the Chinese,
when the route via Hami was not available to them, to set up strategic caches
of supplies along this route.
Stein (1928, Vol. I, p.
319) reports that some of his party found old tracks and their guide
“took them to mark the passage of some Mongols making for Tun-huang from the
western Kuruk-tāgh. On questioning, the guide told him that his
grandfather “who like his father had been a hunter of wild camels and
familiar with the wastes of the Kuruk-tāgh, knew vaguely of a route
leading through them to the Tun-huang side.”
The “New Route of the North”
or “New Northern Route” ran to the north of the Bogdo Shan
Mountains through Further Jushi (near modern Jimasa) and then almost parallel
to the Central Route, and north of the Tian Shan, past modern Urumchi to the
Wusun.
The distance of 208 km
mentioned in the text matches that between Turfan and the region of modern
Guchen and Jimasa on modern maps. The town of Jinman 金滿城 [Ch’in-man]
is described as houbu 後郶 in the Hou Hanshu which translates as
something like: “The Headquarters for Further [Juzhi]”
“According
to the Xiyushuidaoji (chap. III, p. 5 a), the site of the ancient
Beiting is none other than the locality of Hubaozi, about twenty li to
the north of the present sub-prefecture of Baohui. In fact, a Tang period stele
has been found at this place which, although badly damaged, categorically
proves that previously the sub-prefecture of Jinman was to be found here. Now,
here is what one reads in the Jiu Tangshu (chap. XL, p. 29 b): “Jinman...
was, during the Later Han, the Posterior Royal Court (of the kingdom) of Jushi.
In the ancient barbarian court, there were five towns. The common name was
therefore, the ‘Territory of the Five Towns.’ In the 14th Zhengguan year (640), after (the
kingdom of) Gaochang (Yarkhoto) had been pacified, the District of Ting
was established.” Several lines above, one reads in the same work that,
in the second Changan year
(702), the Protectorate of Beiting was created from the District of Ting.
Thus this text confirms the opinion of the Xiyushuidaoji, for it proves
that Beiting is Jinman. Now, we know, from an inscription found in
situ that Jinman was 20 li to the north of Baohui xian
(or Ximusa) which is 90 li to the southwest of Guchen. Besides,
this text shows us that the name of Bishbalek (the five towns), that the
Government of Beiting had under the Mongols, corresponds to a very
ancient name already known in the T’ang period. Bishbalek is, therefore,
not Urumchi. Like Beiting, with which it is identical, it is at some
distance to the west of Guchen.” Translated and adapted from: Chavannes
(1900) pp. 11, and 305, n.
Aurel Stein found the ruins of the old
town about 10 km north of modern Jimasa, just beyond the village of
Hu-p’u-tzu (Hupuzi): “The outer walls... appear to have once
enclosed a roughly rectangular area, measuring approximately 2,160 yards [1,975
m.] from north to south and 1,260 yards [1,152 m.] from east to west.”
Stein (1928), pp. 554-559. See also: CICA: 184, n. 622.
The Hou Hanshu
states that the king of the Posterior Jushi lived in the Wutu valley, which was
500 li [= 208 km] from the residence of the Jangshi [‘Adjutant
General’] in Lukchun. As I measure it, this is exactly the distance
between Lukchun and a point about 10 km beyond Jimasa on two maps of the route
from Turfan to Guchen. See: Stein (1928), Map 28, and the U.S. Defence Mapping
Agency’s ONC, Sheet F-7. This confirms the findings of Chavannes and
Stein, making the identification virtually certain.
Although this short
route was probably used for military communications and the like between Nearer
and Further Jushi, it could never have been a major caravan route:
“I may point out here that the direct tracks leading from Turfān to
Guchen across the high, snowy portion of the T’ien-shan intervening are
only open for a part of the year, and, as my crossing in 1914 of the least
difficult of the passes, the Pa-no-p’a, showed, impracticable at all
times for any but the lightest transport. Trade caravans and military convoys
would at all times have to make a great detour either west (via Urumchi) or
east (via Ulan-su) in order to get round the Bogdo-ula range by a route
practicable for camels or carts.
This point has to be
borne in mind when we compare the two routes referred to in the notice of the
Former Han Annals. The ‘new route of the north’ coming from the
Shona-nōr must have crossed the T’ien-shan by the easy and low
saddle north of Ch’i-ku-ching over which the present Chinese cart-road
from Hāmi to Guchen and Urumchi passes.” Stein (1921), p. 706, n. 6.
There were two main routes through Wusun
territory. One ran west through Santai (near Lake Sairam) and then over the
Talki Pass into the Ili valley. From Urumchi the route ran west through Manass.
To
the west of Manass there were two main passes south into the Kax He [K’o
shih Ho] Valley which led on to modern Yining or Guldja near the junction
of the Kunes and the Ili Rivers. The first headed over the mountains through
modern Dushanzi to the south of Kuytun and Usa. The second pass, further east,
led to the south of Lake Ayram:
“Another
[of the so-called “Iron Gates”] is the defile of Talki leading from
the Sairam (nor) or Sut (Kul) lake southward, to the Ili River. This was called
Kulugha by Turki-speaking people, and Timur-Khalaga by the
Mongols ; and Dr. Bretschneider explains that the word Khalaga or Khalga,
means, in Mongol, a pass or gate, while Timur signifies iron. The
Chinese traveller Chang-Te, in 1259, passed through the Talki defile, and
described it as “very rugged with overhanging rocks.” He speaks of
it by a transliterated Mongol name which stands for “iron roadway.”
Elias (1895), p. 20, n. 3. The TCAW marks this pass as the
“Xin’ertai.”
This route continued to the north of Issyk
Kul through modern Almaty to Tokmak and Bishkek. All these routes were
accessible to camel caravans:
“But his
first words contained a test, and I had failed to meet that test. ‘The
camel caravans did not cross the mountains,’ he had said. I should have
corrected him, politely; knowing he had been referring to these mountains, to
the Tien Shan.
The camel caravans had
crossed these mountains, through the eastern passes coming from the Middle to
the Northern Route; making their way from Gao Chang, from Turfan. And they
crossed them again from the west, travelling the Northern Route that led to
Kuldja and the Ili.” Martyn (1987), p. 432.
The alternative route (which would have
been safer from the attacks of northern nomads) ran even further south, along
the Kekes River Valley to Issyk-kol where, according to the Hanshu the
Wusun had their capital at Chigu (“Red Valley”) – which I
have located in the spectacular Jeti-Öghüz Valley just southwest of
modern Karakol near the Issyk-kol lake itself (see CWR note 1.61).
From Issyk-kol the way
continued around the northern perimeter of the lake (“Most of the
population and agriculture, and all the decent roads, are along the north
shore.” King, et al. (1996), p. 375), and on via Tokmak to Bishkek, where
it joined the previous route to Talas in Kangju territory. From there one could
head through the Ferghana Valley to Khojend (Khodzhent or Kujand, known as
Stalinabad during the Soviet era).
It was, as closely as I
can measure it on my maps, about 820-830 km between Jeti-Öghüz and
Khojend by this route. So, it seems fair to assume that this is route mentioned
in the Shiji, ch. 123, which records that “Wusun is situated some
2,000 li [832 km] northeast from Dayuan.” See TWR, note
1.61 for more details on these identifications, which find valuable additional
support from this notice.
From Talas there were
three main branch routes: the one mentioned in the Weilue ran northwest
along the Jaxartes or Syr Darya north of the Aral and the Caspian Seas to the
land of the Yancai or Alans who, at that time, were living to the north of the
Black Sea and stretching over to the western and northern shores of the
Caspian. The Weilue states the Yancai bordered on Da Qin (Roman
territory) which is undoubtedly a reference to the Roman territories in Armenia
from which there was access to ports on the Black Sea, and from there to the
Mediterranean.
The other two routes ran
south from Talas through Northern Wuyi (modern Khojend) to the region of modern
Samarkand, where one branch went southwest through the oasis of Bukhara and
Merv to Iran, and the other branch headed south through Termez (ancient Dumi
– one of the five main divisions of the Yuezhi mentioned in the Hou
Hanshu) and across the Oxus (or Amu Darya) to Bactra (Balkh). From there
one could travel southeast to Gaofu (Kabul) and India, or southwest through
Herat to Iran.
(e) North-South Routes across the
Tarim Basin
“It is true
that the Southern and the Middle Silk Roads were separated from each other by
the Taklamakan Desert, but since the Bronze Age there were north-south
connections along a few rivers such as the Khotan Darya and the Keriya Darya.
Since after a great thaw in the Kunlun mountain range the waters of the Khotan
Darya cross the desert and reach the Tarim even today, this transverse line
linking Khotan to Aksu and going along the river has never been abandoned.
About 180 km north of
Khotan a mountain range with a reddish hue rises up from the desert plain. . .
.
The Mazar Tag chain of
mountains ends next to the Khotan Darya. Here on a rocky ledge about 150 m
high, the well-preserved Mazar Tagh fort proudly looks down on the river and
watches over the former trade route. The position of the fort was almost
impregnable, for the rock face near the southern crest falls almost vertically
and is also quite steep in the east, while a tower at a distance of about 30 m
protects the northwestern access. This massive 6 m tower reminds one of the
limes of the Eastern Han and Jin eras between Loulan and Dunhuang. . . .
The tower is certainly
the most ancient structure and could date from the 3rd or 4th
century AD. . . . ” Baumer (2000), pp. 67 and 69.
“A look at the map as well as analysis of the satellite photographs show
that a trade route along the Keriya Darya would be the shortest connection
between the two former kingdoms of Khotan and Kucha. If one believes the report
of Mirza Hidar, Kashgar prince and historian, the Keriya Darya was supposed to
have reached the course of the Tarim as early as the 16th century.
We may therefore surmise that Karadong, which was halfway between Keriya
(today’s Yutian) and the Tarim south of Kucha, had been a fort at the
beginning of our era, besides serving as a caravanserai for trade caravans. . .
.
The excavations of
ancient Karadong by a Sino-French team, which began in 1991, have brought to
light sensational finds and caused a reassessment of Karadong’s
importance. First, in an area five kilometres long and three kilometres wide
next to the fort, the archaeologists found twenty ruined houses, a temple and
forty other ceramic sites that indicate completely destroyed houses or ceramic
kilns. Most structures are concentrated in the northern half of the oasis
south-east of the caravanserai, in an area of 1300 m by 800 m. In the southern
half, an intricate irrigation system could be identified, extending more than
three kilometres in a north-south direction. Coins from the Han Dynasty and
numerous remnants of millet, wheat, oats and rice were also found. In view of
the extended irrigation network, conceivably one or more of these cereals had
been produced in Karadong itself. . . .
As previously described,
forty kilometres north of Karadong are the extended ruins of the proto-historic
town of Yuan Sha as well as traces of even older settlements. Since Yuan Sha
had been abandoned shortly before the turn of the era in favour of Karadong,
the golden age of the latter settlement must have been in the first two
centuries of our era. In those times Karadong was part of the Yumi principality
which extended as far as Keriya. The complete lack of coins from the Tang
Dynasty and of artefacts of a younger date than the 4th century AD
leads to the conclusion that Karadong must have been abandoned in the 4th
century AD. The political disturbances after the breakdown of Chinese authority
in the 3rd century AD must have led to a recession of trade,
depopulation, and as a consequence, neglect of the irrigation canals, which
favoured the advance of the desert. The Keriya Darya probably transferred its
river bed eastwards during this period, a fact that also made living conditions
more difficult.” Baumer (2000), pp. 93, 95, 96.
B. The territories of Haixi, Haibei and Haidong
(a)
Haixi 海西 –
literally: ‘West of the Sea’ = Egypt.
Haixi, and the
associated names, Haibei 海北 – ‘North of the Sea’ –
which provided an overland route between Mesopotamia and Egypt; and Haidong 海東
–‘East of the Sea,’ have continued to elude firm
identification in spite of detailed treatment by recent scholars. Haixi and
Haibei are first mentioned in the Hou Hanshu, and Haidong in the Weilue.
These regions or
countries are presumably located in the various directions in relation to Xihai,
or the ‘Western Sea,’ (sometimes called, Dahai, or the ‘Great
Sea’).
Although there has been
some speculation that Xihai and Dahai might refer to the Mediterranean or even
the Black Sea, all the evidence points to both names being used for the Indian
Ocean which, to Chinese as well as the Romans, included the Persian Gulf and
the Red Sea. See Leslie and Gardiner (1996), Chap. 20.8, pp. 271-272.
There is a detailed
account of these territories in David Graf’s article, Graf (1996) –
especially the section on ‘The Western Regions’ on p. 204, and the
map at the end. However, he argues that the use of the terms Haixi 海西 [Hai-hsi],
Haibei 海北 [Hai-pei], and Haidong 海東 [Hai-tung]
indicate: “that the Chinese of the Han era were ignorant about the
existence of the Arabian peninsula. For them, the great sea adjacent to the
Persian coasts stretched westward forming an immense bay that extended all the
way west to the coasts on Ta-ch’in. Their belief in this imaginary body
of water resulted in the creation of the three coastal districts.”
I cannot agree with this
analysis. It is true that the Chinese, like the Romans, and the Greeks before
them, considered the Indian Ocean and its two major Gulfs, the Red Sea and the
Arabian (or ‘Persian’) Gulf as a whole. The Greeks referred to it
as the Erythraean Sea. This is perfectly reasonable and accurate, as easily
navigable entrances join all the waterways. Because the Chinese accounts do not
mention the Arabian Peninsula does not mean they were necessarily ignorant of
it.
In my view, the Chinese
division of these regions makes excellent sense. Thus we have: ‘West of
the Sea’ (= Egypt); ‘East of the Sea’ (the lands on the east
coast of the Persian Gulf, or Persis) and, finally, ‘North of the
Sea,’ the region in between and joining them: (probably northern Saudi
Arabia, Jordan and southern Israel). The Weilue mentions an overland
route through Haibei from Parthian territory to Egypt (Haixi):
“Now, if
you leave the city of Angu (Gerrha) by the overland route, you go due north to
Haibei (‘North of the Sea’), then due west to Haixi (Egypt), then
turn due south to go through the city of Wuchisan (Alexandria).”
This could refer to the long route up the
Euphrates through Palmyra and Dura Europa, from where it turns south, and later
west, to Egypt. There were two rather more arduous, but shorter, and more
direct alternatives. the first of these went west from the head of the Persian
Gulf, across the desert to the oasis of al-Jawf (Dumatha). Here the road
forked, and one could head north up the Wadi Sirhan towards Damascus, or west
towards Petra, Rhinocolura, and Egypt. It seems these routes were guarded by
Roman patrols after their annexation of Nabataea in 106 CE. Bowersock (1996), pp. 157-159; Millar (1993), pp. 138-139.
The other route left the
region of the prosperous trading state of Gerrha in eastern Arabia and took one
across the peninsula either to al-Jawf or to the Nabataean city of Hegra
(modern Meda’in Salih – some 25 km north of the ancient site of
Dedan) and on to the port of Leukê Komê (literally, ‘White
Village’), which is probably be located in the vicinity of modern Egra =
Al Wajh, 26° 13’ N, 36° 27’ E, on the east coast of the Red
Sea.
“Much of
the merchandise of the Orient was brought overland from the port of Gerrha on
the Persian Gulf to the Arabian port of Leukê Komê on the east side
of the Gulf of Aqabah and then shipped or transported by caravan northward to
Aila. From there it was carried to Petra, to which a direct, overland route led
also from Meda’in Aleh in Arabia. And “thence to Rhinocolura
(modern el-Arish in Sinai on the Mediterranean) . . . and thence to other
nations,” according to the Greek geographer Strabo, who wrote about the
Nabataeans at the beginning of the first century A.D.” Glueck (1959), pp.
269-270. See also note 16.1.
“For this
trade [with Elymais and Karmania] they opened the city of Carra [Gerrha] where
their market was held. From here they all used to set out on the twenty-day
march to Gabba and Syria-Palestine. According to Juba’s report they began
later for the same reason to go to the empire of the Parthians. It seems to me
that still earlier they brought their goods to the Persians rather than to
Syria and Egypt, which Herodotus confirms, who says the Arabs paid 1,000
talents of incense yearly to the kings of Persia. Juba (c. 25 BC-AD 25) and
Pliny, NH (AD 77) 12. 40. 80).” Potts (1990), pp. 90-91.
“The merchants of Palmyra were also active in Egypt. One group resident
in Coptos was engaged in the commerce of the Red Sea and thus by implication
possibly also with India and East Africa. Others used the overland route from
Mesopotamia to Denderah in Egypt.” Raschke (1976), p. 644.
The suggestion that best that fits all the
evidence is that Haixi refers to Egypt. Egypt is certainly to the west of the
Red Sea (which was considered an integral part of Xihai – the
‘Western Sea’), and the major Roman ports in the Red Sea which were
the termini of the extensive maritime trade with India and Parthia, were
located along the eastern coast of Egypt – quite literally ‘west of
the sea’. The use of Haixi as a name for Egypt was probably reinforced by
the fact that the characters represent a reasonably close phonetic
approximation of the name into Chinese.
A major source of
confusion has been the identification of Haixi with Da Qin in the Chinese texts
as, for example, in the section on Da Qin in the Hou Hanshu: “The
kingdom of Da Qin (Rome) is also called Lijian. As it is found to the west of
the sea, it is also called the kingdom of Haixi.”
This does not seem to be
contradictory to me – Egypt had been under the control of Rome since 30 BCE and was, therefore, considered ‘Roman territory.’ Also,
almost all freight being shipped from the East to ‘Rome’ went
through Egypt, which was the first territory mariners reached which could be
called ‘Roman.’ Merchants from Egypt may well have referred to
themselves as Romans, as many would have been officially Roman citizens, even
before Caracalla’s edict:
“In AD 212 Emperor Caracalla issued his famous edict granting Roman
citizenship to all the inhabitants of the Roman Empire (only the
‘capitulated’, whose identification remains a matter of scholarly
dispute, were excluded).” Lewis (1983), p. 34.
It is not surprising to find both the
names for Rome and Egypt interchanged at this time in distant China. This
identification of Haixi as Egypt is, I believe, amply confirmed in the passage
from the Weilue.
To add weight to my
contention that Haixi = Egypt – the Weilue says that from Parthian
territory one can sail directly to Haixi – which, in itself, strongly
indicates Egypt. The only other Roman-controlled territory which could be
reached by sea from the East were the Nabataean lands, annexed by the Romans in
106 CE, in the northeast corner of the Red Sea and
included the Gulf of Aqaba and the port of Leukê Komê. See note
16.1.
The port of Aila (also
known, at various times as: Aelana, ‘Aḳaba, Elath, Ezion-geber, Ailath and Ailam), at the head of the Gulf of
Aqaba, was very difficult to sail to because of the unfavourable prevailing
winds and would have been quite unsuited to handle the large ships the Romans
used in the India trade.
The estimate in the Weilue
of two months for the journey to Egypt with good winds seems very reasonable.
The reference to it taking up to three years with no wind is probably only a
repeat of the discouraging reports given to Gan Ying in 97 CE by Parthian sailors.
The reference to a river
“flowing out of the west of the country into another great sea,” is
clearly a reference to the Nile. This certainly puts an end to any of the
speculation (as discussed above) that Haixi might refer to the Nabataean
territories.
Some have argued that
the Nile doesn’t flow out of the west of Egypt, but out of its north. If,
on the other hand, one looks at it from the perspective of a sailor reaching
the eastern coast of Egypt on the Red Sea. The Nile would certainly seem to
flow out of the west of the country into another big sea (the Mediterranean).
The next section of the
text shows how one could travel from the south of the country and across the
main branches of the Nile to get to Wuchisan or Alexandria.
Wu – 烏 K. 61a *·o /
·uo; EMC ?ɔ
chi – 遲 K. 596d *d’i̯ǝr
/ d̑’i; EMC dri, also drih
san – 散 K. 156a sân /
san; EMC: san’, also sanh
Despite the misgivings of Leslie and
Gardiner (1996, p. 185), Wuchisan is not an unreasonable transcription
of Alexandria into Chinese – as Hirth (1875), p. 182, first pointed out.
It is also significant that it is never described as a ‘capital
city,’ or the seat of a king.
Finally, the journey of
six days (after first “circling around the coast”) across another
big sea (which must be the Mediterranean) to Da Qin “Proper” makes
the identification of Haixi with Egypt, for all intents and purposes, certain.
This clearly shows that Haixi was considered separate from Da Qin
“proper”. While it is true that the journey from Alexandria to Rome
usually took considerably longer than six days, the fastest recorded time being
about nine days, the return journey could sometimes be made in less than six
days, as Priscus of Panium reports:
“When the
[Roman] emperor [Valentinian III] learned of these events he dispatched [c.
CE 452] two thousand newly enlisted troops, and with
a fair wind they landed in the great city of Alexandria on the sixth
day.” Quoted in Gordon (1992), p. 19, who adds: “Such a rapid
journey was only possible with the Etesian winds of July.” The
‘etesian wind’ blows from the north, northwest, or northeast, most
of the time from about mid-May to mid-September each year.
It is very clear in both the texts of the Weilue
and the Hou Hanshu that Haixi (‘West of the Sea’)
must refer to Egypt. And, of course, until the Romans annexed the Nabataean
empire (which controlled the ports of Leuke Kome on the eastern shore of the
Red Sea), it was the only part of the Roman empire accessible by sea for
traders from the east, and was the western terminus for extensive maritime
trade with Parthia, India and Southeast Asia.
Also, there is other
evidence which supports the identification of Haixi as Egypt. For example:
“At the
time of the Eastern Han, this kingdom [Haixi = Egypt] had communications with
China. During the reign of Emperor Hedi, in the Yongyuan period (89-105), the king of Dan [which was probably
the port of Tāmralipti in the Ganges delta – see: Colless (1980), p.
169], named Yongyoudiao, sent an interpreter charged with offering precious
objects from his country. The Emperor gave him a golden seal decorated with
purple silk.
Envoys from the same
prince again came to the Court at the beginning of the Yongning period (120), to congratulate Emperor Andi on his
accession to the throne. They brought some musicians and some skilful jugglers
who performed transformations, belched fire, changed the head of an ox to that
of a horse, amputated limbs, and then replaced them. They also know how to play
with little balls and can keep as many as ten in the air at a time.
These foreigners
themselves said, “We are men from West of the Sea”. Now,
‘West of the Sea’ is [part of] Da Qin, and it is situated to the
southwest of the kingdom of Dan.” Ma Duanlin quoted in Saint-Denys
(1876), pp. 268-269. Translated from the French.
Haixi clearly must refer to Egypt for:
a. it is the
main Roman territory one reaches after sailing from Parthia;
b. it has a
large river flowing out of the west of the country (the Nile) into another
‘Great Sea’ which one crosses to reach the capital (Rome) of Da
Qin;
c. and it
contains the city of Wuchisan (= Alexandria).
(b) Haibei 海北 literally: ‘North of the Sea.’ The
territory called Haibei 海北 ‘North of the Sea,’ must refer to the
lands between Babylonia and what is now Jordan and/or Syria. This is a
perfectly accurate description as the Chinese apparently [like the Greeks and
Romans] referred to the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean as the
one sea. The Greeks and Romans referred to it as the Erythraean
(“Red”) Sea whereas the Chinese called it the Xihai or
‘Western Sea’ or Tahai which just means ‘great sea’ and
seems to have been also used for the Mediterranean. See Appendix C.
“The merchants of Palmyra were also active in Egypt. One group resident
in Coptos was engaged in the commerce of the Red Sea and thus by implication
possibly also with India and East Africa. Others used the overland route from
Mesopotamia to Denderah in Egypt.” Raschke (1976), p. 644.
(c) Haidong literally: 海東 or
‘East of the Sea’ = Persis. Haidong probably referred to the region
of Persis – the old homeland of the Persians and site of the ancient
capital of Persepolis, destroyed by Alexander.
For much of the 1st
and 2nd centuries CE it was, in all but name,
independent of the Parthians. It was the seat of Sasanians who, under Ardashir
I, founded a new Persian dynasty in 224 CE and overthrew
the Parthians circa 226 CE.
“Persis
was originally a district of the Persian empire that embraced the lands along
the eastern shore of the Persian Gulf; see W. Hinz, RE Suppl. 12 s. v. Persis
(1970). During the centuries when a Parthian dynasty ruled in Persia (ca. 248
B.C. to A.D. 226), the district became virtually an independent kingdom, with
its own rulers and coinage, acknowledging vassalage to Parthian overlords only
when these were strong enough to insist on it (cf. Raschke 815, n. 719). To
judge from the statements in the Periplus, at the time of writing
[between 40 and 70 CE] Persis controlled a broad expanse of territory,
from a point on the Arabian coast opposite the Kuria Muria Islands to past
Omana on the Makran coast.. It controlled as well the head of the Persian
Gulf....” Casson (1989), p. 174.
For more details see notes 11.5 and 11.11.
C. The “great seas” and the
“Western Sea.”
Dahai 大海 [Ta Hai]
– literally, ‘a great sea.’ I believe that, in this context,
it can only refer to what we now know as the Indian Ocean, including the Persian
Gulf and the Red Sea.
The text says that:
“The kingdom of Da Qin (Rome) is also called Lijian. It is west of Anxi
(Parthia) and Tiaozhi (Characene and Susiana), and west of a great sea. From
the city of Angu (Gerrha), on the frontier of Anxi (Parthia), you take a boat
and cut directly across to Haixi (‘West of the Sea’ = which is
definitely Roman Territory and, as I will show later, is almost certainly
Egypt).” See: note 11.5.
The Chinese text reads: 有河出其國西又有大海 – literally, “There is a river flowing
from the west of this country (into) another great sea.” This, I believe,
can only be interpreted as: “a river (the Nile) flows out of the west of
this country (i.e. out of the west of “Haixi”) into another great
sea (which can only be the Mediterranean).
Although the terms used
are somewhat confusing, if looked at carefully the meaning is quite clear.
Chapters 96A and 61 of the Hanshu (see CICA, pp, 113, 235) and
the Chapter on the Western Regions of the Hou Hanshu refer only to Xihai
西海 – the ‘Western Sea,’ which Gan Ying reached at the
head of the Persian Gulf in 97 CE, and by which it was said
you could sail to Da Qin, i.e. Roman territory (which could only be a reference
to Egypt).
This Roman-controlled
territory, Egypt, is referred to as Haixi 海西, which
literally means “West of the Sea” and, as we are told in this
section of the Weilue,
was also used as a name for the country because it was, quite literally at the
western end of the “Western Sea.” It is important to keep these two
entities, Xihai or the “Western Sea,” and Haixi or “West of
the Sea” = Egypt, separate in our minds.
Further, the Weilue
refers to the same sea (running from the Persian Gulf to Egypt as 大海 dahai
which can equally be translated as “The Great Sea” or “a
great sea.” I think it should be understood as the latter here –
“a great sea” rather than “The Great Sea” because the
text refers to another 大海 dahai or “great
sea” which has the river running into it. This must be the Mediterranean.
This identification is confirmed a little further on in the text when we are
informed that from Wuchisan (= Alexandria) you must cross a “great
sea” to reach the “king’s seat of government” of
“that country” (i.e. Da Qin = Rome).
Leslie and Gardiner
(1996), include a section (12.3 c.) on “The Western Sea” and
another (20.8) on “The Hsi-hai and other seas” on pp. 146 and
271-272 respectively.
“They [of
the Roman Empire] also have a fine cloth which some people say is made from the
down of ‘water sheep,’ but which is made, in fact, from the cocoons
of wild silkworms.”
This is the first known reference to
“sea silk” in Chinese literature and is found in the chapter on the
Western Regions of the Hou Hanshu which deals with the period of the
Later Han (25-220 CE), and was composed by Fan Ye. Fan Ye states that
he based most of the information in this chapter on a report presented to the
Emperor by the Chinese general Ban Yong about 125 CE. This report contained a considerable amount of information on a
country called ‘Da Qin’, or the Roman Empire.
The Chinese Envoy Gan
Ying apparently collected the bulk of this information during his journey to
Parthia. He had been specifically sent in 97 CE to
collect information on the Roman Empire by Ban Yong’s father, the famous
general, Ban Chao. Although he only reached the shores of the Persian Gulf, he
managed to gather much information on Da Qin that was new to the Chinese
– presumably from seamen and other travellers he met in Parthia.
The
story of the ‘water-sheep’ is also found in the Weilue,
which was written sometime during the second third of the 3rd
century CE by the historian, Yu Huan. It contains no
criticism of the story of the ‘water-sheep’ and adds that other
common domestic animals in the Roman Empire came “from the water.”
It is worth repeating here:
“This
country [the Roman Empire] produces fine linen. They make gold and silver
coins. One gold coin is equal to ten silver coins. They have fine brocaded
cloth that is said to be made from the down of ‘water-sheep’. It is
called Haixi (‘Egyptian’) cloth. This country produces the six
domestic animals [traditionally: horses, cattle, sheep, chickens, dogs and
pigs], which are all said to come from the water.
It is said that they not
only use sheep’s wool, but also bark from trees, or the silk from wild
silkworms, to make brocade, mats, pile rugs, woven cloth and curtains, all of
them of good quality, and with brighter colours than those made in the
countries of Haidong (“East of the Sea”).
Furthermore, they
regularly make a profit by obtaining Chinese silk, unravelling it, and making
fine hu (‘Western’) silk damasks. That is why this country
trades with Anxi (Parthia) across the middle of the sea.”
Here we have an account not only of cloth
made from the “wool” of “water-sheep”, but also that
made from domestic sheep wool, tree bark, and silk from wild silkworms (yecan),
as well a very light silken cloth produced from rewoven imported Chinese
cultivated silk.
Emil
Bretshneider in his book, Arabs and Arabian Colonies (1871), p. 24,
suggested that the ‘down of the water-sheep’ referred to in the
Chinese accounts was, “. . . perhaps, the Byssus, a cloth-stuff
woven up to the present time by the Mediterranean coast, especially in Southern
Italy, from the thread-like excrescences of several sea-shells, especially Pinna
squamosa.” Hirth (1885), p. 262.
“It is
all very arbitrarily, it seems to me, that the shuiyang 水羊 or
‘aquatic sheep’ have been connected with the famous agnus
scythicus which plays such an important role in the accounts of travellers
of the Middle Ages until the 17th century. The two legends have
nothing in common, for there is no question of water regarding the agnus
scythicus; as Bretschneider remarked (On the knowledge . . . , p.
24) the cloth made from the wool of aquatic sheep must be the Byssus which is
manufactured with the excretions of certain seashells, notably the Pinna
squamosa. This opinion seems confirmed to me by the passage of Alestakhry
(10th century) : “At a certain time of the year, one sees
coming up from the sea an animal which rubs up against certain rocks on the
coast, and deposits a kind of wool of a silken colour, that is, of a golden
colour. This wool is very rare and highly valued, and none is allowed to be
wasted. It is collected and is used to weave material, which is dyed now in
different colours. The Ummayad princes (who reigned at Cordova then) reserved
the use of this wool for their own use. It is only in secret that one can succeed
in diverting any portion of it. A robe made with this wool costs more than a
thousand pieces of gold.” Reinard, from whom we have borrowed this
translation (Géographie s’Aboulféda, II, II, p. 242,
n. 1) indicates that the animal which comes up from the sea to rub itself on
certain rocks is the marine pinnus, a shell which attaches itself to the rocks.
But, if it is true that the Byssus was, in fact, manufactured from the
filaments of the Pinna squamosa, it is clear, on the other hand, that
this manufacture being kept secret, a legend formed which attributed the tufts
gathered from the rocks at the edge of the sea to a rot of marine sheep which
came to rub against these rocks. The tradition reported by Alestakhry thus
appears to me to well account for the expression “aquatic sheep” 水羊 which is
found for the first time in this text of the Hou Hanshu. – By
disassociating the aquatic sheep from the agnus scythicus, we cannot
therefore say that the legend of the agnus scythicus was unknown in
China. To the contrary, the Chinese literature which gives us the most ancient
evidence relating to this fantastic animal. In fact, Zhang Shouqie 張守節, who
published his commentary in 737 on the Historical Memoires of Sima Qian,
quotes (Mém. Hist., chap. CXXIII, p. 3a) a passage from the Yiwuzhi
of Song Ying 宋膺異物志 in which we read that: “To the north of Qin,
in a little country which is subject to it, there are lambs which are born
spontaneously in the ground. By waiting for the moment when they are on the
point of hatching out, a wall is built all around them for fear that they might
be eaten by ferocious beasts. Their umbilical cord is attached to the ground
and, if one cuts it, they die. Therefore instruments are beaten to scare them.
They cry from fear and their umbilical cords break. Then they are allowed to
search for water and pasture and form a flock. . . . ” Translated from
Chavannes (1907), p. 183, n. 4.
Many scholars remained sceptical and
accepted the account in the Hou Hanshu that clearly states that the
so-called ‘water-sheep’ were a fiction and that the cloth referred
to was, rather, wild silk:
“The down
of the water sheep is a particular favourite. HIRTH accepted
BRETSCHNEIDER’S suggestion that this was cloth made from the thread-like
excretions of sea-shells and that this is what was meant by the term byssus!
This particular fable, whose acceptance by modern scholars demonstrates an
almost absurd naivety, still continues to flourish (e.g. J. FERGUSON, ANRW II
9.2, above p. 590). For the various meanings of byssus see E. WIPSZYCKA,
L’industrie textile dans l’Égypte romaine: matières
premières et stades préliminiaires (Warsaw 1965), 40-41.”
Raschke (1976), p. 854, n. 849.
“The
conclusion is that, in the whole of Chinese literature, there is only one
mention of the shui-yang, that found in the Wei lio, in the
middle of the 3rd cent. Later texts have been copied or abbreviated from it,
and do not represent any independent tradition. In the Wei lio itself,
this “water sheep” occurs only in connection with a certain
textile, which was woven with threads of variegated colours without a
monochrome ground (地 ti; this was the main
differentiation between chih-chêng, which had no
“ground”, and the 錦 chin, which had one; but
it was not always strictly adhered to in the practical use of the two terms);
and even then, the author of the Wei lio had heard conflicting reports,
some saying that the fabric was made of tree-bark (or bast), others of the silk
of wild silkworms. Moreover, there is a disquieting sentence in the text:
“In that kingdom, the six domestic animals all come out of the
water”, to which former inquirers did not devote a word of comment. It
sounds as though Ta-Ch’in being a maritime kingdom, the “West of
the Sea Kingdom”, a rumour had reached China that Ta-Ch’in was
indebted to the sea not only for its “water sheep”, but for its
oxen, horses, dogs, etc. . . . In any case, since all the domestic animals in
Ta-Ch’in are in the same plight, the shui-yang is merely the
equivalent of yang alone, and, as a matter of fact, it is the word yang
(“sheep”) alone, not “water sheep”, which is used when
the Wei lio speaks a second time of the wool of the same animal. Under
such conditions, while admitting that there must have been in China, in the
early 3rd cent., a tradition about some special sort of “sheep’s
down” of Ta-Ch’in, I think that we must be careful not to lay too
much stress on the statement that this sheep was a “water sheep”.
Pelliot (1963), pp. 509-510.
Evidence of the existence of sea-silk
textiles in the 4th century Roman Empire, and the fact that the
“marine wool” mentioned in Diocletian’s Price Edict of 301 CE possibly refers to sea silk, leads us to re-examine the references in
the Chinese accounts.
On closer examination of
the wording of the Chinese text of the Hou Hanshu, it appears that the
claim that the cloth made from “water-sheep” was false and really
referred to wild silks is likely a critical comment added by the compiler Fan
Ye in the 5th century CE to the
original report by Gan Ying. It seems quite probable to me now that the
original reports had a factual basis, only to be discounted as myth at a later
period.
In fact,
“sea-silk” has always been extremely rare and it is quite plausible
that similar cloths from Da Qin examined by the Chinese in later periods were
wild silks. Although wild silks were themselves uncommon, they were not nearly
as rare (or as costly) as sea-silk. Wild silks could be easily mistaken
sea-silk, as many of them were naturally similar in colour and appearance to
sea-silk and they were, sometimes, blended
together.
“The most famous product produced by the Pinnidae is the byssus fiber,
which is an extremely fine and soft but strong fiber produced by a gland in the
foot of the animal for the purpose of anchoring the shell. The byssus fiber of
some of the larger species in this family is sufficiently long so that it can
be spun and then woven or knitted to make small garments. It has a beautiful
golden bronze sheen and was often combined with silk when used in making larger
garments. Most authorities believe that the use of the byssus as a fiber in
making garments probably originated in India near Colchi. This is based on the
fact that the earlier Greek and Roman writers referred to Pinna but did
not mention the use of the byssus before the time of Tertullian (150-222 A.D.).
Tarento was the center of the industry in Italy, and Procopius, who wrote on
the Persian wars about 350 A.D., stated that the five hereditary satraps
(governors) of Armenia who received their insignia from the Roman Emperor were
given chlamys (or cloaks) made from lana pinna (Pinna
“wool,” or byssus). Apparently only the ruling classes were allowed
to wear these chlamys. Even today a small remnant of the former industry
remains in Italy and a few articles such as gloves, hats, shawls and stockings
are made mainly for the tourist trade. According to Simmonds (1879) in
“The Commercial Products of the Sea,” the byssus formed an
important article of commerce among the Sicilians, for which purpose
considerable numbers of Pinna were annually fished in the Mediterranean
from a depth of 20 to 30 feet. He also said, “a considerable manufactory
is established at Palermo; the fabrics made are extremely elegant and vie in
appearance with the finest silk. The best products of this material are,
however, said to be made in the Orphan Hospital of St. Philomel at
Lucca.” Though the modern gloves and shawls are knitted, the chlamys,
gloves and stockings of the ancients were woven, for knitting was not known
until about 1500 according to Yates (1843). Articles made from Pinna
byssus are extremely strong and durable except that they are readily attacked
by moths so that great care must be taken in their preservation. There are, as
a consequence, very few examples of the early garments in existence. On Plate
153 are shown the cleaned byssus of Atrina rigida Solander ; the shell
of Pinna nobilis Linné, the species from which the byssus was
obtained for the Italian industry ; and a glove made from byssus fibre at
Tarento, Italy [presently displayed at the Smithsonian in Washington,
D.C.].” Turner and Rosewater (1958), pp. 292 and 294.
The Oxford English Dictionary (1971),
Compact Edition Reprint (1988) gives under Byssus:
“3. Zool.
The tuft of fine silky filaments by which molluscs of the genus Pinna
and various mussels attach themselves to the surface of rocks; it is secreted
by the byssus-gland in the foot.”
“These filaments have been spun, and made into small articles of
apparel.. Their colour is brilliant, and ranges from a beautiful golden yellow
to a rich brown; they are also very durable.. The fabric is so thin that a pair
of stockings may be put in an ordinary-sized snuff-box.” [From: The
draper’s dictionary, by S. William Beck (1886)].
The Treasury of Natural History or A
Popular Dictionary of Zoology by
Samuel Maunder. London. Longmans, Green, and Co. (1878), p. 526, states:
“PINNA. A
genus of Molluscs, called also wing-shell, which in many respects
approaches the Mussels. It has two equal wedge-shaped valves, united by a
ligament along one of their sides ; and obtains a very considerable size,
sometimes being nearly three feet long. The animal fixes itself, by its byssus
which is remarkably long and silky, to submarine rocks and other bodies ; where
it lives in a vertical position, the point of the shell being undermost, and
the base or edge above. Sometimes large bodies of them are found even attached
to a sandy bottom at the depth of a few fathoms. They are common in some parts
of the Mediterranean ; and are not merely sought as food by the inhabitants on
the coasts, but they gather the byssus, of which a stuff may be formed which is
remarkable for its warmth and suppleness. The filaments are extremely fine and
strong, and the colour, which is a reddish-brown, never fades. The finest
byssus of the ancients was fabricated from these filaments ; and in Sicily they
are still sometimes manufactured into gloves and other articles of dress, though,
it must be confessed, more as an object of curiosity than use.”
“The
Pinnidae have considerable economic importance in many parts of the world. They
produce pearls of moderate value. In the Mediterranean area, material made from
the holdfast or byssus of Pinna nobilis Linné has been utilized
in the manufacture of clothing for many centuries: gloves, shawls, stockings
and cloaks. Apparel made from this material has an attractive golden hue and
these items were greatly valued by the ancients.
Today, pinnidae are
eaten in Japan, Polynesia, in several other Indo-Pacific island groups, and on
the west coast of Mexico, In Polynesia, the valves of Atrina vexillum
are carved to form decorative articles, and entire valves of larger specimens
are sometimes used as plates.” Rosewater (1961), pp. 175-176.
The word byssus not only refers to
the excretions of seashells, as sometimes assumed, but originally referred to
fine threads of linen, and later, of cotton and silk. It is derived from Latin byssus
via Gk. byssos – flax, linen. It is of Semitic origin related to
Hebrew būts – fine linen. This word is probably related to
the material “‘Böz,’ an exotic cloth in the Chinese
Imperial Court.” Discussed in Ecsady (1975), pp. 145-153.
It
seems that the initial reports of sea-wool reaching China in the 1st
century CE were based on a genuine tradition. These reports
were then embellished by the 3rd century to the point that the six
main domestic animals known to the Chinese were said to have come from the
water in the Roman Empire.
By the 5th
century, the whole story was being dismissed as a fable; the sea-wool explained
away as merely a form of wild silk – with which the Chinese had had long
experience.
Felicitas
Maeder very kindly, sent me a copy of her excellent article, “The project
Sea-silk – Rediscovering an Ancient Textile Material,” from the Archaeological
Textiles Newsletter Number 35, Autumn 2002, pp. 8-11. She also included a
copy of the fascinating chapter, “Oriental Translations: Pinna Wool,
Aquatic Sheep and Mermaid Fleece,” pp. 67-75, from Daniel L.
McKinley’s monograph, “Pinna and Her Silken Beard: A Foray Into
Historical Misappropriations” in Ars Textrina: A Journal
of Textiles and Costume, Volume Twenty-nine, June, 1998. Winnipeg, Canada,
9p. 9-223.
Felicitas Maeder’s
article not only includes a beautiful full-page colour reproduction of a 14th
century knitted cap of sea-silk but points out on page 10 that:
“Proof of
the reality of the use of sea-silk for textile production at least in late
antiquity is a fragment of a woven textile of the 4th century. It
was found in 1912 in a woman’s grave in Aquinicum (Budapest), at that
time a Roman town at the north-east frontier of the empire. It was described in
1917 by F. Hollendonner and 1935 by L. Nagy. J. P. Wild mentions this fragment
in his study of textile manufacture in the Northern Roman provinces (1970) and
adds that it supports the assumption that the ‘marine wool’ of
Diocletian’s Price Edict meant sea-silk.”
Felicitas Maeder, through the
“Project sea-silk” at the Natural History Museum in Basle,
Switzerland, has mounted a spectacular exhibition on sea silk from 19th
March to 27th June, 2004 featuring a wide variety of items made of
sea silk loaned by museums all over Europe. They have just published a
magnificently illustrated catalogue on the exhibition with detailed notes on
all aspects of the history, production and uses of sea silk in both Italian and
German, called Bisso marino: Fili d’oro dal fondo del
mare – Muschelseide : Goldene Fäden vom Meeresgrund.
Edited by Felicitas Maeder, Ambros Hänggi, and Dominik Wunderlin.
Naturhistoriches Museum and Museum der Kulturen, Basel, Switzerland.
There can no longer be any question of sea
silk being just a fable!
E. Wild
Silks.
Wild silks
are produced by a number of non-domesticated silkworms. They all differ in one
major respect from the domesticated varieties. The cocoons, which are gathered
in the wild, have already been chewed through by the pupa or caterpillar
(“silkworm”) before the cocoons are gathered and thus the single
thread which makes up the cocoon has been cut into shorter lengths, making a
weaker thread. They also differ in colour and texture and are often more
difficult to dye than silk from the cultivated silkworm.
Commercially reared
silkworms are killed before the pupae emerge by dipping them in boiling water
or they are killed with a needle, thus allowing the whole cocoon to be
unravelled as one continuous thread. This allows a much stronger cloth to be
woven from the silk.
There is ample evidence
that small quantities of “wild silks” were already being produced
in the Mediterranean and Middle East by the time the superior, and stronger,
cultivated silk from China began to be imported.
Pliny, in the 1st
century CE, obviously had some knowledge of how silkworms
were utilised, even though his account included some muddled information:
“Another species of insect is the silk-moth
which is a native of Assyria. It is larger than the insects already mentioned
[i.e. bees, wasps and hornets]. Silk-moths make their nests of mud, which looks
like salt, attached to stone; they are so hard they can scarcely be pierced by
javelins. In the nests they make wax combs on a larger scale than bees and
produce a bigger larva.
Silk-moths have an additional stage
in their generation. A very big larva first changes into a caterpillar with two
antennae, this becomes what is termed a chrysalis, from which comes a larva which
in six months turns into a silkworm. The silkworms weave webs like spiders and
these are used for haute couture dresses for women, the material being
called silk. The technique of unravelling the cocoons and weaving the thread
was first invented on Cos by a woman named Pamphile, the daughter of Plateas.
She has the inalienable distinction of having devised a way of making
women’s clothing ‘see-through.’
Silk-moths, so they say, are
produced on Cos, where a vapour from the ground breathes life into the flowers
– from the cypress, terebinth, ash and oak – that have been beaten
down by the rain. First, small butterflies without down are produced; these
cannot endure the cold so they grow shaggy hair and equip themselves with thick
coats to combat winter, scraping together down from the leaves with their rough
feet. They compact this into fleeces, card it with their claws and draw it out
into the woof, thinned out as if by a comb, and then they wrap this round their
body.
Then they are taken away, put in
earthenware containers and reared on bran in a warm atmosphere. Underneath
their coats a peculiar kind of feather grows, and when they are covered by
these they are taken out for special treatment. The tufts of wool are plucked
out and softened by moisture and subsequently thinned out into threads by means
of a rush spindle. Even men have not been ashamed to adopt silk clothing in
summer because of its lightness. Our habits have become so bizarre since the
time we used to wear leather cuirasses that even a toga is considered an undue
weight. However, we have left Assyrian silk dresses to the women – so
far!” Pliny NH (a), pp. 157-158. (XI, 75-78).
“The use and production of wild silk was known to geographically widely
diverse areas of the ancient world. In this case the larvae are not cultivated
or fed. They spin the cocoon and then chew their way out of it. The cocoons are
then collected and unwound. The domesticated silkworm is killed, either by
scalding the cocoon or by the insertion of a needle, to insure that the thread
remains undamaged from the efforts of the larvae to escape. Wild silk is
coarser and somewhat less expensive and is the product of a considerable
variety of larvae of the sub-order bombycina. It is to this class that
the famous Coan silk of the ancient world belonged. Such wild silk was produced
in China and possibly also in India, Central Asia and Mesopotamia. How much, if
any, was exported to the West is unknown.” Raschke, Manfred G., 1976:
623. (Also see the discussion of Coan silk, ibid. 722, nn. 380, 381).
“One knows that Aristotle mentions fabrics
made from the cocoons of a wild silkworm on the island of Kos.” Chavannes
(1907), p. 184, n. 1.
“The
Arthaśāstra lists valuable
goods considered important to be included in the king’s treasury and this
includes a range of textiles such as silk, where a distinction is made between patrorṇā, kauśeya, and cīna-paṭṭa
(II.11.107-14). Patrorṇā has
been identified as uncultivated silk collected from various trees (Scharfe
1993:290) and together with kauśeya,
which Xuanzang differentiates from Chinese silk and refers to as gathered from
wild silkworms (Beal 1906/1958, vol. II: 133), it forms the Indian varieties of
silk. Kauśeya is already
mentioned in the fifth to fourth-century BCE grammar of Paṇini (IV.3.42)
and occurs in the Epics.” Ray (2003), p. 220.
As Ray
mentions in the above quote, Beal does claim that the kauśeya that Xuanzang mentions as being used for clothing in
India, “is the product of the wild silkworm” (but on vol. I, p. 75
of my 1969 reprint of the 1884 edition). However, Watters (1904-05), I, p. 148,
specifies that it was a silk made from the cocoon of “Bombyx Mori”
– which is the domesticated silkworm. Monier-Williams (1899) p. 317,
defines kauśeya simply as:
“. . . silken. . . silk, silk cloth, silk petticoat or trousers, a
woman’s lower garments of silk. . . .”
“The more than 500 species of wild silkworms fend for themselves,
feasting on oak and other leaves. When they become moths, they are bigger and
more gorgeous than the commercial Bombyx. More robust than their
domesticated cousins, wild silkworms produce a tougher, rougher silk, not as
easily bleached and dyed as the mulberry silk.
China is the chief supplier of an
off-white wild silk known as tussah. India has a monopoly on the muga
caterpillar, which thrives in the humidity of the Assam Valley and produces a
shimmering golden silk. The eri silkworm, raised on the castor plant in India,
produces silk that is extremely durable, but that cannot be easily reeled off
the cocoon and must be spun like cotton or wool.” Hyde (1984), p. 14.
There are a
number of references in early Chinese literature to nanjin as a very
rare and highly-prized tribute item coming from the south. Unfortunately, it has
never been clear exactly what this product was. The Hanyu da cidian has
several references to nanjin which show that as early as the Later Han
it was being included in a list of rare treasures which also included precious
jewels, special fine silk (used to produce fans), and fine mulberry paper. In
the Pan shui it is listed along with ivory as a tribute item and says in
a later entry that it was a form of unbleached silk.
“Nan Jin see Pei Wen Yun Fu p. 1425. I think
this is a kind of silk.” Dr. Ryden, personal email 2/7/98.
“India has a monopoly on the muga
caterpillar, which thrives in the humidity of the Assam Valley and produces a
shimmering golden silk. The eri silkworm, raised on the castor plant in India,
produces silk that is extremely durable, but that cannot be easily reeled off
the cocoon and must be spun like cotton or wool.” Hyde (1984), p. 14.
The beautiful
and expensive golden-coloured “wild” silk called “Muga”
is produced only in the Brahmaputra Valley - mainly Assam and adjoining parts
of Burma. This silk has always been highly prized - not only for its beautiful
natural golden sheen, which actually improves with ageing and washing –
but for the fact that it is the strongest natural fibre known. Garments made of
it outlast those made of ordinary silk - commonly lasting 50 years or more.
In addition, it absorbs
moisture better than ordinary silk and is, therefore, more comfortable to wear.
Nowadays, it is mainly sought after for the highest-quality saris given as
dowry presents to wealthy brides in India. There is, apparently, quite a racket
in India, where other “wild” silks are dyed so they can be passed
off as the more expensive Muga variety. Also see: “On the question of
silk in pre-Han Eurasia” by Irene Good. Antiquity Vol. 69, Number
266, December 1995, pp. 959-968; “Silk in Ancient Nubia: One Road, Many
Sources” by Nettie K. Adams (to be published soon).
F. Maritime Commerce and Shipping
during the Han Period.
By the first century CE a vast network of interlinked, regularly travelled, maritime trade
routes stretched all the way from Britain to Korea (via the Mediterranean,
Egypt, India and Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and Tonkin), and down the east coast of
Africa.
These sea routes were,
of course, closely linked with the overland routes, allowing a flow of goods
and ideas across almost the whole of the known world at the time.
Roman and Arab ships
dominated the Egypt to India trade, but most of the trade between India and
China was carried by Malay, Indonesian and Indian ships. It seems it was only
later that Chinese ships regularly travelled to India. It was rare, however,
for Chinese or Roman citizens to make the complete round trip journey between
China and Egypt:
“The
water of the great sea which is crossed on the road thither [to the Roman
Empire] is salt and bitter, and unfit for drinking purposes; the merchants
travelling to and fro are provided with three years’ provisions; hence,
there are not many going. . . . During the T’ai-k’ang period of the
emperor Wu-ti [= CE 280-290] their king sent an envoy to offer
tribute.” From the Chin-shu, “written before the middle of
the 7th century, and embracing the period CE 265-419, ch. 97. . . ,” translation from Hirth (1885), p. 45.
This network of sea routes was made
possible by a series of four almost simultaneous developments:
– China
gained control of Jiaozhi [Chiao-chih] (Tonkin – centred near modern
Hanoi in the delta of the Red River) by early first century CE.
– The
annexation of Egypt in 31 BCE provided Rome with access
to the Red Sea and Indian Ocean.
– The
strong desire of China and Rome both for direct trade with India, and to open a
sea route between their two empires to evade the heavy taxes charged by the
Parthians on the main east-west caravan routes.
– The
emergence of a regular sea trade between India, Indonesia, and China,
particularly by Indian, and Indonesian merchantmen. Some of these ships were
very large for their day and are said to have carried up to a thousand
passengers and cargoes of over a thousand tonnes.
This trade was made simpler and more
reliable, for not only did the winds change direction at various seasons, but
so did the ocean currents. This meant that ships could sail both ways across
the Indian Ocean and in and out of the Persian Gulf (at different times of
year) with not only favourable winds, but also favourable currents:
“In tropical waters there is an interplay between air currents and ocean
currents. Equatorial currents and trade winds keep one another company from
east to west all year round across the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. The
Indian Ocean differs because the monsoons dominate, and the ocean current is
influenced by winds that blow from south to north in the six summer months and
from north to south in the six winter months. This is the only ocean area in
the world where currents change directions with the seasons. Arab and Indian
dhows took advantage of those varying tailwinds when they sailed back and forth
with their merchandise, in and out of the Persian Gulf. The changes in the
monsoon were part of nature’s clockwork, and just as reliable as the sun
and the moon.” Heyerdahl (2000), p. 290.
“We also
have dramatic new evidence of sailing ability in the early historical period in
Southeast Asia, in this case perhaps involving use of the monsoon winds that
blow seasonally across the Bay of Bengal. About 2,000 years ago, pottery
characteristic of the Indo-Roman site of Arikamedu in Tamil Nadu, on the Indian
coast, found its way to the site of Sembiran in Bali (excavated by I.W. Ardika
of Udayana University in Bali), an astounding 2,700 miles as the crow flies, or
much more if the sailors hugged the coast. This Indian trade pottery--the
largest assemblage ever found outside the Indian subcontinent itself--heralded
a millennium of cultural contact that gave rise to the temples and
civilizations of Pagan, Angkor, and Borobudur. Much of this trade probably
involved spices--even Romans occasionally acquired cloves, which came from
small islands in the northern Moluccas.” Bellwood (1997).
Most foreign shipping to China during the
Later Han seems to have terminated at the port of Jiaozhi in the Red River
Delta, near modern Hanoi and Haiphong. Sailing around Hainan Island and up the rest
of the coast of China was hazardous and uncertain, as were the straits between
Formosa and the mainland.
From Jiaozhi junks could
transport goods up the Red River some 330 km [205 miles] to Manhao, in what is
now southern Yunnan and transported from there overland across the famous
“five-foot road” to central China and the capital, Changan.
Jiaozhi seems to be the
only port under Chinese control mentioned in the early literature which was
reached by envoys and merchants from Da Qin (the Roman Empire). It was not
until later that ports to the north such as Nan-hai began to be frequented by
ships from the south and west.
“Marinos
[of Tyre] does not tell the number of stadia from the Golden Chersonese to
Cattigara, but says Alexander wrote that the shore line extends toward the
south, and that those sailing along the shore came, after twenty days, to Zaba.
From Zaba carried southward and toward the left, they came after some days to
Cattigara.
He lengthens the
distance, interpreting the expression some days to mean many days, and
believing (ridiculously it seems to me) that the expression “some
days” was used because the days were too many to be counted.” From:
Ptolemy, Geography, 35 (Chap. 14, 1-2).
“. . . ,
and from those who have come to us we have also learned much concerning its
[India’s] interior as far as the Golden Chersonesus, and from there to
Cattigara. We have also learned that those who sail there sail to the eastward,
and those returning sail to the westward.
The navigators say that
the time of the passage is uncertain, and that beyond Sina is the region of the
Seres and the city Sera. What regions lie east of this they say are
unknown, for they have stagnant marshes, in which grow reeds so thick and so
large, that catching hold of them, and upborne by them, men can walk across
these marshes. They say further that not only is there a way from there to
Bactriana through the Stone Tower, but also a way to India through Palimbothra.
The journey from the
capital Sina to the gate of Cattigara runs to the southwest, and therefore does
not coincide with the meridian drawn through Sera and Cattigara, as Marinus
reports, but with one drawn more to the east.” Ptolemy, Geography,
37-38. (Chap. 17, 4-5).
“In the 9th year of the Yen-hsi period of Huan-ti of the Han
dynasty [= CE 166] the king of Ta-ts’in, An-tun, sent an
embassy with tribute from the frontier of Jih-nan [Annam]; during the Han
period they have only once communicated [with China]. The merchants of this
country frequently visit Fu-nan [Siam, Cambodja?] Jih-nan [Annam] and
Chiao-chih [Tung-king]; but few of the inhabitants of these southern frontier
states have come to Ta-ts’in. During the 5th year of the
Huang-wu period of the reign of Sun-ch’uan [= CE 226] a merchant of Ta-ts’in came to Chiao-chih [Tung-king]; the
prefect [t’ai-shou] of Chiao-chih, Wu Miao, sent him to
Sun-ch’üan [the Wu emperor], who asked him for a report on his
native country and its people. Ts’in-lun prepared a statement, and replied.
At the time Chu-ko K’o chastised Tan-yang [= Kiang-nan] and they had
caught blackish coloured dwarfs. When Ts’in-lun saw them he said that in
Ta-ts’in these men are rarely seen. Sun-ch’üan then sent for
male and female dwarfs, ten of each, in charge of an officer, Liu Hsien of
Hui-chi [a district in Chêkiang], to accompany Ts’in-lun. Liu Hsien
died on the road, whereupon Ts’in-lun returned to his native
country.” From the Liang-shu, “written about A.D. 629, and
comprising the period A.D. 502-556, ch. 54: the account of Chung
T’ien-chu.” Translation by Hirth (1885), pp. 47-48 [with some minor
adaptations].
Soon after 111 BCE, when the Chinese conquered the Yue [Yüeh] kingdom, centred in
the rich delta of the Red River, they began searching for land routes to the
west. They found their path blocked by local tribes, and were forced to
generally rely on the northwest route through Central Asia:
“At this
time Han had already overthrown the kingdom of Yüeh [111 BCE] in the southeast, and the barbarian tribes living southwest of Shu
[western part of present Szechuan] were all filled with awe and begged to be
ruled by Han officials and allowed to pay their respects at court. The Han
therefore set up the provinces of I-chou [109 BCE],
Yüeh-sui [111 BCE], Tsang-ko [111 BCE],
Ch’en-li [111 BCE], and Wen-shan [111 BCE],
hoping to extend the area under Han control so that a route could be opened to
Ta-hsia [Daxia = Bactria]. The Han sent Po Shih-ch’ang, Lü
Yüeh-jen, and others, over ten parties in the space of one year, out of
these new provinces to try to get through to Ta-hsia. The parties were all
blocked by the K’un-ming barbarians, however, who stole their goods and
murdered the envoys, so that none of them were ever able to reach Ta-hsia.
The Han then freed the
criminals of the three districts of the capital area and, adding to them twenty
or thirty thousand soldiers from Pa and Shu, dispatched them under the command
of two generals, Kuo Ch’ang and Wei Kuang, to go and attack the
K’un-ming tribes that were blocking the Han envoys. The army succeeded in
killing or capturing twenty or thirty thousand of the enemy before departing
from the area, but later, when another attempt was made to send envoys to
Ta-hsia, the K’un-ming once more fell upon them and none were able to
reach their destination. By this time, however, so many envoys had journeyed to
Ta-hsia by the northern route out of Chiu-ch’üan that the foreign
states in the area had become surfeited with Han goods and no longer regarded them
with any esteem.” From Chapter 123 of the Shih chi of Szu-ma
Ch’ien, translated by Watson (1961). Vol. II, 275-276. See also the
similar passage in Chapter 61 of the Hanshu, translated in: CICA,
pp. 220-221.
Nothing is heard of this route again until
CE 69 when the Chinese established the Prefecture of
Yongchang [Yung-ch’ang] across the upper Mekong, Salween, and Red Rivers,
with its headquarters east of the Salween, about 100 kilometres from the
present border of Burma, near modern Dali [Tali].
“Despite
Han China’s annexation of its Vietnamese province near the end of the
second century B.C., which brought the Middle Kingdom into close geographical
proximity to Southeast Asia, China’s role in the development of the early
seaborne trade of the area was relatively unimportant. This fact was
attributable in some measure to the failure of the Chinese authorities to
maintain the naval power needed for suppressing the pirates who infested the
Fukien and Kwangtung coastal areas. The policing of the south was regarded, apparently,
as being not worth the effort required. The Middle Kingdom’s cultural and
political centre was located in the Yellow River Valley, so that the distant
coasts constituted only a little-used back door leading to the barbarian world
of the southern seas. In general, China evinced no urge to civilize its
southern neighbours, even though at a later date it set no geographical bounds
to the exercise of its political suzerainty in the area.
China’s
traditional outlet to the civilized world of India and the Middle East long
remained the overland silk road across Central Asia. It was by this route that
Buddhism reached China from India in the first century A.D. In the late fourth
century it was in reverse along the same route, dotted at the time with
monastic way stations, that the Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien and others found their
way back to India for the purpose of visiting Buddhist shrines and assembling
Pali scriptures. When the Han Chinese undertook in the first century to develop
shorter trade connections with India, they selected the previously mentioned
route from the upper Yangtse basin through the gorges of the Mekong and Salween
Rivers in western Yunnan to the Irrawaddy Valley of Burma and thence to the
coasts of the Bay of Bengal. Proceeding westward in the winter winds, they made
for the Telingana and Kalinga areas of the eastern coast of India, where the
Mons also maintained their most persistent contacts. The special Chinese
prefecture of Yung ch’ang, covering the area of western Yunnan, was
established in A.D. 69. This route continued to be used until after the
collapse of the Han dynasty in the early third century; the Yung ch’ang
prefecture was not abandoned until 342.” Cady (1964), pp. 22-23.
“Near
Eastern cargoes penetrating to the China market were of necessity luxury goods
such as frankincense and myrrh, medicinal drugs, jewels, fine textiles and
carpets, and glassware. From Southeast Asian sources, China also began to
accept, as early as the second century, forest products such as pine resins,
benzoin, camphor, scented woods, ebony, ivory, and condiments. The forest items
in particular may have first gained entry into China as cheaper substitutes for
the rare “Persian” drugs and perfumes of the Near East. This Po-ssŭ
trade from Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula eventually (by the third or fourth
century) gained Chinese acceptance on its own merits.” Cady (1964), pp.
26-27.
There is no evidence that the Chinese ever
succeeded in opening a major overland route from Yunnan to the west, due to the
difficult terrain and hostile native tribes. There was, at times, some movement
of goods from Burmese ports, up the Irrawaddy River as far as Bhamo and even as
far as Myitkyinā. From Bhamo, goods were taken overland into Yunnan and
southern China.
“Commercial
transport is maintained for about 800 miles [1,287 km]. From Henzada to Bhamo
(670 miles) [1,078 km], commercial traffic is maintained throughout the year,
but from Bhamo to Myitkyina (125 miles), for only seven months.” NEB:
vol. 9, 899.
For extensive details on the overland
routes through Yunnan and to Burma and India, see Pelliot (1904), pp. 131-413,
which although it relates to conditions in the 8th century, it
contains much of relevance to earlier periods.
The Mekong River was not
a viable alternative for access into Southern China, as waterfalls and rapids
made navigation on the upper river impossible. The Chinese soon discovered, as
the French did many years later, that the Red River provided the easiest access
to Southern China – when political control of the lower river could be
maintained:
“Garnier
and de Lagrée led a small expedition up the [Mekong] river between 1866
and 1868; they reached Luang Prabang and, ignoring the King’s
dissuasions, followed the river’s course into China as far as Tali. There
Garnier was courteously turned back, but he had discovered both that the Mekong
was useless as a trade route between Saigon and Yunnan, owing to the rapids of
its wild upper reaches, and that the Red River (Song Koi) was a more feasible
route to China from Tongking. This route was quickly tested by Dupuis, a
merchant whom Garnier had met at Hangkow and who had contacts with Chinese
generals in Yunnan. In 1871 Dupuis left Yunnan-fu to strike the Red River at
Mang-hao, south of the provincial capital, and then came down to Hanoi with a
cargo of tin and copper. He returned up the river to Yunnan with a cargo of
arms, and again made the downstream journey to Hanoi.” Simkin (1968), p.
342.
“When, more than five years earlier, the ragged and exhausted members of
the Mekong mission had met Jean Dupuis in Hankow, this astute French
businessman had recognized the vital commercial significance of their
information about the Red River. As an arms merchant, Dupuis did not need to be
told that a river route into Yunnan, such as they believed the Red River to be,
offered great opportunities. Instead of having to ship weapons by the long and
costly way of the Yangtze, and then overland to the Yunnanese capital at
K’un-ming, the Red River could be used to transport supplies into the
heart of southwestern China. After two visits to the capital of Yunnan, Dupuis
had, by early 1871, a major commission to purchase arms for the imperial
forces. His plan was to buy these in France, then bring them up the Red River
to Yunnan.” Osborne (1975), p. 201.
“As with so much of the history of the Mekong expedition, the debate over
who first discovered the Red River’s commercial possibilities ended with
a final twist of irony. Just as the Mekong was bound to be impossible for
long-distance navigation by craft of any size, so eventually did the Red River
prove to have little commercial value. It was, as Dupuis had found, navigable,
with some difficulty from the Gulf of Tonkin into China, but his experience did
not represent any general indication of the river’s possibilities.
Depuis’ arms sales to the imperial forces in Yunnan had been a special
case. He had, for a brief period, stood ready to supply the one commodity which
the officials in Yunnan required. When, more than a decade later, France did
occupy Tonkin, the last thing the new colonial administration wished to see was
the use of the Red River as a conduit for arms. In later years the upper waters
of the Red River were important for local commerce but little more.”
Osborne (1975), p. 217.
“Decade
after decade, French planners pored over maps, still convinced that it ought to
be possible to use the Mekong as a link to China; if only the rapids could be
conquered, this great river would offer a way to the country that had been so
very much in French minds from the earliest days of their colonial presence in
Vietnam. In the eighties and nineties, and even into the twentieth century,
plans were made and, more rarely, put into action. All to no avail. Highly
powered steam launches could master some of the rapids, but the Khone falls
remained a major obstacle to passage from Cambodia into Laos. In Laos itself,
navigation above Vientiane was made tortuous and slow by the rapids that had
cost the French expedition so much effort. The best that could be done was to
link the navigable stretches of the river by other, land-based forms of
transport. When British naval intelligence produced a handbook on the
Indochinese region during the Second World War, the information provided on the
Mekong as a navigable route was succinct and to the point. At the end of the
1930s it still took longer to travel from Saigon to Luang Prabang than to
travel from Saigon to Marseilles. The golden route to China did not lie along
the Mekong.” Osborne (1975), pp. 218-219. See also Osborne (2000), pp.
102, 103, 114, 119.
The Red River was navigable as far up as
Manhao [Man-hao] in Yunnan. I can report from my own personal observation that
above this point navigation on the river is prevented by extensive rapids. From
here a road went to Mengzi [Meng-tzu] and on, via Jian-shui [Chien-shui] and
Tonghai [Tung-hai], to join the main road (the ‘Five Foot Road’),
near present day Kunming, which led all the way, via Chengdu, to the capital at
Changan (modern Xian).
“The commercial highway from Chiao-chih (Tungking) to Yün-nan, or
the Tunking Manhao trade route to Yün-nan. Man-hao is the landing place at
the end of the Red River in the Circuit or Intendancy of Southern Yün-nan,
called I-nan Tao . . . .
The most important of all
routes to Yün-nan from an economical point of view, as well as from its
superior convenience, is undoubtedly the Tungking Manhao Route.
However disagreeable it
may be to Englishmen to know it the French in Tungking are in possession of the
key to Yün-nan. The navigability of the Red River for junks as high up as
Manhao in Yün-nan, has been proven beyond doubt.
Manhao is a town and
port at the head of navigation on the Red River. It is in the jurisdiction of
the Lin-an Fu prefecture and in the county of Mêng-tzŭ Hsien. From
Manhao to Yün-nan Fu, the Capital of the province, the journey occupies
eleven days, and the whole of the journey from Hanoi to the Capital of
Yün-nan can be accomplished within a month by junk and pony, but the
introduction of steam will greatly abridge the time occupied on the
journey.” Mesny (1896), p. 346.
“MENG-TZU,
Pin-yin romanization MENG-ZU [now Mengzi], town in southern Yunnan Province (sheng),
China. In the 19th century, Meng-tzu was a trading centre for commerce between
the interior of Yunnan and the Hanoi-Haiphong area of Indochina. Communications
were inconvenient: goods were brought to Ho-k’ou on the Indochinese border
by junk, transferred by a small craft to Man-hao, and then brought 37 mi (60
km) by pack animal to Meng-tzu. Despite these difficulties, Meng-tzu was an
important point of entry not only into Yunnan but also into western Kweichow
Province and in 1889 was opened to foreign trade as a treaty port. Most of this
foreign trade was in tin and opium. The importance of Meng-tzu was ended by the
construction of the French railway from Haiphong to K’un-ming (provincial
capital of Yunnan) in 1906-10. This railway bypassed Meng-tzu, but in 1915, a
branch line was built via the town to the Ko-chiu [Gejiu] tin mines. . . .
” NEB: VI, p. 789. See also Pelliot (1904), pp. 141-142.
The Weilue makes it quite clear
that it was mainly by this route foreigners and their merchandise made their
way to Yongchang [Yung-ch’ang]. The routes from the south and the
west included difficult overland portages that frequently crossed the territory
of hostile tribes. As a result of this situation, Jiaozhi, in the delta of the
Red River, near modern Hanoi, soon became China’s major port in the
south:
“As the Jiutangshu
(k. 41, p. 33b) says, all the kingdoms of the southern seas who came to render
homage during the Han, “inevitably took the way of Jiaozhi.”
Pelliot (1904), p. 133. See also Hirth (1885), pp. 47-48.
“The
population statistics of Chiao-chih Commandery for A.D. 2 [92,440 households]
suggest that by that time Tongking was already a flourishing trade center with
large households of merchant families dealing in the exotic wares of the south
and controlling the southern extreme of the Nan-hai trade routes.”
Holmgren (1980), p. 71.
The story of the family of Senghui [Seng-hui],
died c. 280 CE, a famous Buddhist monk and translator, gives a
glimpse of this movement of foreign merchants to Jiaozhi, in the delta of the
Red River:
“The
ancestors of the Sogdian Seng-hui were originally from K’ang-chü
(Sogdiana). They had been established in T’ien-chou (India) for
several generations. His father came to Chiao-chih (Tonkin) to
trade.” Translated from Chavannes (1909), pp. 199-200.
The biography of Shi Xie [Shih Hsieh]
who ruled Jiaozhi Circuit with his family from CE 189-226
gives us a fascinating glimpse of the wealth and trade of Jiaozhi in the early
third century:
“Whenever
Hsieh sent couriers to Sun Ch’üan [ruler of the Wu court at Nanking CE 222-252], they brought with them varied types of incense, fine cloth
and always several thousand pearls, great cowries, porcelain, blue kingfisher
feathers, tortoise shells, rhinoceros horn and elephant tusk. They also brought
strange animals and curiosities, coconuts, bananas and longans. Not a year went
by without the arrival of a tribute mission. Once [Shih] Yi [one of Shih
Hsieh’s brothers who was in charge of a commandery] sent a tribute of
several hundred horses. Ch’üan invariably sent letters greatly
increasing their honours in order to keep their allegiance and make them
happy.” SKC 49 (Wu 4), 11b-12a. From: Holmgren (1980), p. 75.
“Entrances
and exits at his (Shih Hsieh’s) court were heralded by striking of gongs
and musical stones, a correct sense of decorum was adhered to, whistles and
flutes were played and often there were several hu (Westerners) burning
incense beside his carriage in the street.” SKC 49 (Wu 4), 10a.
From: Holmgren (1980), p. 76.
“Official
Chinese use of the sea route to Southeast Asia for diplomatic contact with
India also occurred in the first century A.D. The Chinese envoys destined for
India proceeded cautiously around the shoreline from Kwangtung past Hainan
Island to Vietnam and along the coasts of Annam and Cochin-China around to a
point at the northwest corner of the Gulf of Siam. Debarking here in the
civilized Mon state called Tun-sun by the Chinese, the envoys proceeded
overland via the Mekong Valley and the Three Pagodas Pass to the estuary of
Burma’s Salween River at Martaban. From here they proceeded past the
delta of the Irrawaddy and on up the coast of Arakan, whence they traversed a
route to India much the same as the final stage of the commercial overland route.
It was this same Tun-sun portage route from Martaban to the Gulf of Siam shore
which was presumably used in 120 by a China-bound mission from the Roman
Empire, which included musicians and jugglers. There is no clear indication
that the water-route to India via Tun-sun, clearly known to the Chinese, was
ever seriously exploited by them for commercial purposes. Occasional Chinese
junks, no doubt, braved the dangers of the southern seas down to various points
on the northern and eastern Malay coasts. Fragments of Han porcelains are
widely scattered. Patani was an early port of call, and the Emperor Wang Mang
reportedly, sent to Sumatra for rhinoceros horns. A few Chinese may have
proceeded around the peninsula to the port of Trakkola (Trang), but official
Chinese initiative and participation in the early Southeast Asian trade were
very meagre.
The reasons for the lack
of Chinese interest in the south ocean trade can be surmised. In the first
place the navigational hazards were great, and the inferior Chinese ships were
obliged to sail close to shore long after Indonesian, Indian, and Arab ships
had learned enough about seasonal winds and navigation to strike out across the
open sea. The officials at South China ports, furthermore, did not encourage
the uncontrolled activity of private traders – a policy which did
characterize the urban port-centered kingdoms of India. Even after the
attractive commercial possibilities of the south ocean trade became apparent in
the second century, the officially acceptable trade from that area was confined
for the most part to the Vietnamese port of Chiao-chi. Canton began to be
widely used only in the sixth century. It was easier, and no doubt just as
profitable, for port officials to control a segregated community of resident
Southeast Asian traders operating on a seasonal rhythm than to encourage an
expansion of Chinese shipping. The so-called Po-ssŭ trading community at
Chinese ports to which Chinese accounts of the early centuries make reference
was probably composed of Sumatran or isthmian merchants trading in Persian-type
perfumes, scented woods, resins, and pearls produced in and collected from
tropical forests and coastal waters of Southeast Asia.
In any case the
initiative in the shuttle trade between China on the north and the Malay
Peninsula and Sumatra on the south came at first almost entirely from the
Malays. If Chinese traders penetrated the south ocean areas, they did so as
passengers of Po-ssŭ ships operated by Malays or Indonesians. . . .
Regular trading contacts
between Chinese and Southeast Asian ports were developed by the late second
century on the initiative of a dozen or so partly Indianized city-states
located on the shores of the Gulf of Siam. These port cities were grouped
together into an empire or federation by Funan probably around the middle of
the third century. Such trading operations were associated after 240 with the
periodic dispatch of official tributary missions to Chinese courts with gifts
advertising local wares. Commercial exchanges were made at southern Chinese
ports of entry while the successive missions completed their leisurely journey
to and from the various Chinese courts. . . . ” Cady (1964), pp. 23-24.
“In 190 A.D. in the reign of the Emperor Han Hsien Ti the prefect of
Jih-nan in Chiao-chih returned from that country to his native place. This man
originally a native scholar of the Chinese state of Lu, the modern Shan-tung,
being seized with a spirit of unrest and adventure had gone to Chiao-chih where
he had distinguished himself so greatly that he, a foreigner, had been raised
to the dignity of prefect.
On his return, his fame
as a traveller was noised abroad until it penetrated the precincts of the royal
palace and reached the ears of the reigning potentate. Chih Hsieh was presently
summoned to court and on his arrival this ancient explorer was received in
audience with his sovereign who raised him to the ranks of the aristocracy as a
Lung-t’ing Hou. After a short stay with his kinsmen Chih Hsieh the newly
created Marquis Lung-t’ing went back to Jih-nan and quietly resumed his
official duties. After the final collapse of the Han dynasty the state of
Chiao-chih on receipt of the news resolved to send a special envoy to the court
of the new Emperor, and the Marquis of Lung-t’ing was selected as the
suitable man. The advent of the Marquis of Lung-t’ing at the court of Wu
Ta Ti [r. 222-252 CE] bringing tribute from so distant a state was
hailed as an event auguring well for the newly established royal house of Sun.
The Emperor was highly gratified by this mark of attention and in commemoration
of the occasion changed the name of Chiao-chih to Chiao-chou, whilst the
ambassador was created a Lung-pien Hou and had bestowed on him the important
and responsible post of Chiao-chou Chieh-tu-shih, or Commander-in-Chief of the
imperial forces in the state of Chiao-chou.
The object of the
Emperor in making these changes was evidently to impress the Annanese with a
sense of his great power and authority. It was a clear indication of his desire
to govern An-nan directly as a Colony, rather than as a semi-independent state.
It was the thin end of the political wedge intended to deprive An-nan of its
autonomy, for when the Annanese government had made Chih Hsieh Prefect of
Jih-nan, they did so as a signal mark of their appreciation of his abilities
and services. But when the Suzerain stepped in and placed this fortunate and
enterprising immigrant above all his former Annanese colleagues and superiors,
then was struck the death blow of the right of An-nan to promote or demote an
official without reference to the Imperial Court. On the death of the new
Viceroy his son Hui did not succeed him but was merely appointed Prefect of
Chiao-chou. Time soon proved Hui’s allegiance to the reigning house of
Sun to be of the slenderest kind for that official headed a revolt, presumably
with the intention of possessing himself of the power his father had enjoyed.
But this was not to be. The Emperor Wu Ta Ti greatly incensed at the treachery
of Hui despatched Wu Tai with an expeditionary force to crush the rebellion,
punish the leaders and restore order in the distant Colony. Complete success
attended the expedition. Wu Tai, who previous to starting had been created
Chiao Chou Tzu Shih, landed without opposition and summoned the rebellious Hui
to his presence. The order was obeyed for Hui together with his five brothers
presented themselves at the Imperial Headquarters where they humbly
acknowledged their guilt and craving pardon for their treasonable offences,
offered guarantees for future good behaviour. However, the Imperial Commander
remained obdurate, and, being exceeding indignant with the treason and abject
cowardice of the six brothers who piteously begged for mercy, he, after
treating them with contempt and contumely ordered his young men to fall on the
traitors and hack them to pieces. This act of severity caused the stern
Commander to be held in great awe by all classes so that the imperial authority
was quickly and firmly re-established. The reigning Emperor in order to
commemorate the suppression of the revolt changed the name Chiao-chou to
Wu-p’ing Chün and governed it by martial law a practice maintained
by succeeding dynasties.
The Chin dynasty called
it Chiu Tê Chün whilst under the Sung; Ch’i; Niang;
Ch’ên and Sui dynasties it was known by the name of
Sung-p’ing Chün after which time the ancient name of Chiao-chih was
again revived.” Mesny (1884), VI, pp. 28-30.
“Chang-ti’s
reign saw a distinct improvement in internal communications in the southern
part of the empire. Hitherto, goods that were being transported from the seven
commanderies of Chiao-chih had been sent by sea. The ships had been able to put
in at Tung-yeh, the only known settlement at that time on the Fukien coast, but
thereafter were subject to storm and shipwreck. In A.D. 83 Cheng Hung, a native
of K’uai-chi commandery who was conversant with these local conditions,
was appointed superintendent of agriculture (ta-ssu-nung). At his
suggestion a land route was opened up across the mountains, through Ling-ling
and Kuei-yang commanderies. This became the normal means of communications,
which remained in use up to the time of one of the compilers of the Hou-Han
shu.” Loewe (1986a), p. 297.
“There is
no evidence to show that by A.D. 1 colonists from elsewhere in China had
migrated to Fukien, and it is likely that only one major settlement existed at
that time. This was the town or county of Tung-yeh, which may have been founded
during Wu-ti’s reign or somewhat later. It was situated on the seacoast
at the mouth of the Min River, and from A.D. 83 at least it served as a staging
post for ocean-going ships carrying tribute from farther south. Toward the end
of the second century some additional counties may have been established in the
area, and these increased in number noticeably from perhaps A.D. 300;
presumably some measure of colonization had taken place during the earlier
decades, when China had been split into the three kingdoms of Wei, Shu-Han, and
Wu.” Yü (1986), pp. 456-457.
“Maritime trade developed slowly but steadily from the first to the
middle of the third centuries A.D., with ships Roman in name though really
Graeco-Egyptian reaching all parts of India, and towards the end of this
period, even penetrating as far as Kattigara, which was either Indo-China, or
perhaps the coast of south China itself. Syrian and Graeco-Egyptian
‘colonies’ or ‘factories’ may have been established at
Canton and Hangchow. Indian and Singhalese ships also plied the same routes,
and a few Roman trading settlements were established in India, but it was not
until after the third century that long-distance Chinese navigators appear on
the scene.” Needham (1978), p. 65.
“According
to Wan Chen, who wrote an account of the South during the Wu dynasty (A.D.
222-77), foreigners [i.e. natives of S.E. Asia] call ships po. The
biggest are 20 chang or more in length, and two or three chang
above the waterline. Seen from above they resemble covered galleries. They
carry six to seven hundred men and a cargo of 10,000 hu’.”
Christie (1957), p. 347.
During the Han 1 chang equalled
2.31 metres, so a ship this size would have been 46.2 metres (152 feet) long,
and 4.6 metres (15 feet) to 6.9 metres (23 feet) above water (presumably
including the “house” or living quarters).
According to Deng
(1997), p. xxiv, the chi (of which 10 equal a chang) was equal to 0.2304
meters in the early Eastern Han (25-28 CE), 0.2375 m.
between 81 and 220 CE, and 0.2412 m. during the Wei (220-265 CE) and during the early Western Jin (265-273) it was 0.2412 m., while
later during the Western Jin it reverted to the earlier measurement of 0.2304
m.. So the length of these ships would have been anywhere from 46.08 m (151 feet)
to 48.24 m. (158 feet) long, “or more.”
One Han hu
equalled 19.968 litres – see: Loewe (1967), p. 161. Therefore, if we can
accept the figure of 10,000 hu as being approximately correct, the ships
could carry only about 200 tonnes of cargo. Deng (1997), p. xxv, shows the shi
(which, during the Han, was the same as the hu) as varying between 24.98
kg during the Later Western Han (141 BCE to 8 CE), and 13.87 kg during the Eastern Han. This would suggest a carrying
capacity of between 249.8 tonnes and 138.7 tonnes.
However, this is likely to be
a gross underestimate as ships this size could be expected to carry up to 1,000
to 2,000 tonnes. ‘10,000’ is probably used here in the common sense
of ‘a myriad’, or ‘a very large number.’
“By the third
century B.C.E. the Chinese had taken notice of Malay sailors approaching their
shores from the “Kunlun” Islands in the southern seas, which the
Chinese learned were “volcanic and invariably endowed with marvellous and
potent powers”. . . . The Chinese also knew these islanders as builders
and as the crews of ocean-going vessels engaged in long-distance overseas
trade. The Chinese, in fact, appear to have learnt much from these sailors. The
Malays independently invented a sail, made from woven mats reinforced with
bamboo, at least several hundred years B.C.E., and by the time of the Han
dynasty (206 B.C.E. to 221 B.C.) the Chinese were using such sails (Johnstone,
1980: 191-92).
Chinese descriptions of
Malay ships, the earliest of which dates to the third century C.E., indicate
that the Malay sailed jongs (a Malay word), large vessels with
multilayered hulls. The English word junk, which is often used to refer
to Chinese vessels, is a derivative of the Malay jong. The Chinese also
recognized that their word for Kunlun ships, buo, was a foreign word
that had been incorporated into Chinese (Manguin, 1980: 266-67, 274). On
average, the jong could carry four to five hundred metric tons, but at
least one was large enough to carry a thousand tons. The planks of the ships
were joined with dowels; no metal was used in their construction. On some of
the smaller vessels parts might be lashed together with vegetable fibres, but
this was not typical of larger ships. The jong usually had from two to
four masts plus a bowsprit, as well as two rudders mounted on its sides.
Outrigger devices, designed to stabilize a vessel, were used on many ships but
probably were not characteristic of ships that sailed in rough oceans (Manguin,
1980: 268-74).
The Malays were also the
first to use a balance-lug sail, an invention of global significance.
Balance-lugs are square sails set fore and aft and tilted down at the end. They
can be pivoted sideways, which makes it possible to sail into the oncoming wind
at an angle of to tack against the wind – to sail at an angle first one
way and then the other, in a zigzag pattern, so as to go in the direction from
which the wind is blowing. Because of the way the sides of the sail were
tilted, from a distance it looked somewhat triangular. . . . It is thus quite
likely that the Malay balance-lug was the inspiration for the triangular lateen
sail, which was developed by sailors living on either side of the Malays, the
Polynesians to their east and the Arabs to their west.
Precisely when the
Polynesians and the Arabs began using the lateen sail remains unknown, but it
would seem to have been in the last centuries B.C.E. It is known that the Arabs
in the vicinity of the Indian Ocean were accomplished sailors by the first century
C.E. and both they and the Polynesians apparently had the lateen sail by then
(Hourani, 1951: 102). This pattern suggests that sailors who came into contact
with the Malays’ balance-lug sail were inspired by it and attempted to
copy its design. They might have misunderstood it to be a triangular sail or,
in the process of trying to duplicate it, discovered a triangular sail would
serve the same purpose.
Arabs sailing in
Mediterranean waters were using a lateen sail by the second century C.E., but
it did not appear on Atlantic ships until the fifteenth century, when
Portuguese mariners put both the lateen and the traditional Atlantic square
sails on their vessels. It was only after they came into the possession of the
lateen and learned how to tack against the wind that it became possible for
them to explore the western coast of Africa, because the winds off
Africa’s western coast blow the same direction all year round. Without a
lateen, Atlantic sailors, including the Portuguese, could not sail south in
search of West African gold, since they would have no way to return to
Europe.” Shaffer (1996), pp. 12-14.
Navigation to the northern end of the Red
Sea was usually difficult for sailing vessels because of the prevailing
northerly winds, but at certain times of the year it was usually possible to
sail some distance up the Red Sea. Ships heading for Egypt could unload their
cargoes (depending on weather conditions and the ultimate destination of the
cargoes) at one of the three main Egyptian ports on the Red Sea: Myos Hormos,
Leukos Limen or Berenicê. Some of the cargoes were transported across
difficult desert roads to the Nile and then shipped down that river to
Alexandria and other delta cities. At other times cargoes may have been carried
by camel caravan north along the banks of the Red Sea and then west across the
delta, probably along roads built on the embankments of the canals which linked
all the major delta cities.
“Myos
Hormos [“Mussel Harbour”] had the advantage of offering a shorter desert
crossing–six to seven days as against eleven to twelve from
Berenicê. But Berenicê, in turn, had a signal advantage of its own
to offer: it lay 230 nautical miles [426 km] south of Myos Hormos, and this
saved homeward bound vessels that much relief from beating against consistently
foul winds. Until the time of the Periplus, both ports seemed to have
been used equally. . . .
Strabo’s remarks seem to indicate that in his day [he visited
Egypt circa 25 or 24 BCE] Myos Hormos was the most
important, whereas statements in the Periplus point to the balance
having tipped in favour of Berenicê. A third port, Leukos Limên,
saw some use in the course of time but apparently never attained the status of
the other two.” Casson (1989), pp. 95-96.
“These
troublesome northerlies may well lie behind Strabo’s remark (17.815) that
Ptolemy II made Berenicê accessible by opening up a road to it
“because the Red Sea is hard to sail, particularly or those who set sail
from the innermost recess”; those who set sail from the innermost recess
obviously had to get back there, and that, no question about it, involved hard
sailing.” Casson (1989), p. 97.
During the time of Trajan [reigned 98-117 CE] the old canal joining the northern end of the Red Sea with the Nile
had been, once again, cleaned out and open to navigation. However, because of
the aforementioned difficulties sailing north in the upper part of the Red Sea
it seems to have be mainly used for outgoing cargoes and local trade:
“Trajan
had another canal dug to link Alexandria with the new port of Clysma. By this
time a Roman fleet was patrolling the Red Sea in order to give protection from
pirates, and its control extended to the Arab anchorage at Ocelis [near the
mouth of the Red Sea], where Rome had trading rights secured through costly
gifts to the local ruler.” Simkin (1968), p. 39.
“Trajan
repaired his ‘river’, the Cairo to Suez canal; and before A.D. 216
the Red Sea was to be patrolled and Coptos was to be garrisoned by Palmyrene
archers officered by Rome.” Stark (1966), p. 253.
Indian ships were making long-distance
maritime trade a regular feature of the first few centuries CE:
“Ancient Tamil literature and the Greek and Roman authors prove that in the
first two centuries of the Christian era the ports on the Coromandel or Chola
coast enjoyed the benefits of active commerce with both West and East. The
Chola fleets did not confine themselves to coasting voyages, but boldly crossed
the Bay of Bengal to the mouths of the Ganges and the Irrawaddy, and the Indian
Ocean to the islands of the Malay Archipelago. All kinds of goods imported into
Kerala or Malabar from Egypt found a ready market in the Chola territory ;
while, on the other hand, the western ports drew a large part of their supplies
of merchandise from the bazaars of the eastern coast, which produced great
quantities of cotton goods. The principal Chola port was Kāviripaddinam,
situated at the northern mouth of the Kāviri (Cauvery) river [on the
southeast coast of India]. This once wealthy city, in which the king maintained
a magnificent palace, and foreign merchants found residence agreeable and
profitable, has vanished, and its site lies buried under deep sand-drifts.
The first historical, or
semi-historical, Chola king is Karikāla, who is represented by the early
poets as having invaded Ceylon and carted off thence thousands of coolies to
work on the embankments of the Kāviri river, a hundred miles in length,
which he constructed. He is said to have been contemporary with Nedunj Cheliyan
Pāndya, as well as with Athem I Chera, and nearly so with Gajabāhu,
king of Ceylon. This last synchronism is valuable as giving an approximate
date, which may be indicated as falling within the limits of the second century
A.D. Karikāla, according to the poets, was succeeded by a grandson named
Ched-chenni Nalank-killi, who was succeeded in his turn by Killi-vallavam.
Chen-kudduva, or Imaya-varman, a cousin of Ched-chenni Nalank-killi, is said to
have been contemporary, at fifty years of age, with Gajabāhu, king of
Ceylon, to whom the traditional chronology assigns the period from 113 to 125
A.D. But the true date must be considerably later.2
2 The
Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago, pp. 64-78 ; S. Krishnaswamy Aiyenagar,
‘Some points in Tamil Literary History,’ Malabar Quarterly
Review, 1904. The dates in Mr. Kanakasabhai’s book seem to be placed
too early.”
Smith (1908),
pp. 415-416.
For accounts of Indian passenger ships of
about this period carrying up to 1,000 passengers, and very large freight ships
– up to 176 feet (53.6 metres) long, 22 feet (6.7 metres) broad and 17
feet (5.2 metres) deep, see: Prasad, (1977), pp. 128-133; Sastri (1975), pp.
115-145.
“In
comparison, the largest galleon in the world when it sank in 1638, the Nuestra
Señora de la Concepción, “weighed 2000 tons and measured 45
metres [148 feet] from bow to stern. Her beam was one-third that length, and
the depth of her hold 6 metres [20 feet].” Mathers and Shaw (1993), p. 2.
“It can be
assumed that fairly intimate trading connections existed from B.C. times
between Indian ports of the Bay of Bengal and leading peoples like the Mons
living on the opposite shores. But the primary direction of India’s trade
until near the end of the first century A.D. was westward rather than toward
Southeast Asia or China. Trade between the Mediterranean world and
India’s western Malabar coast was developed originally by traders from
the lower Red Sea area and by the Hellenistic Seleucids. Roman trade from Egypt
to India later attained substantial proportions around 90 B.C. only to decline
sharply during the ensuing sixty years of Roman civil strife. It was revived
under Augustus around 30 B.C. Until the first century A.D., when both Red Sea
and Roman ships began to use the monsoon passage direct from Aden to India, the
shipping routes had continuously paralleled the Arabian, Persian, and Indian
coasts.
. . . . Thus the more
adventurous Indian traders already familiar with the opposite shores of the Bay
of Bengal began collaborating with north Sumatran and east coast Malays to
bring to the ports of Ceylon [and eastern India] spices, forest resins, and
scented woods from Southeast Asia and choice Chinese silks and porcelains, all
of which were marketable in India and the Near East. Greek and Arab vessels
seldom if ever proceeded further eastward than Ceylon, although several score
families of Persian traders were allegedly resident at the Malay isthmus in the
third century.” Cady (1964), pp. 25-26.
“It was
during the early second century that Indian shippers gained sufficient
experience and confidence to abandon early habits of sailing close to the
shore. From the Bengal port of Tamralipti at the western end of the Ganges
delta, sailing ships could proceed southward during the winter season, passing
either to the east of the Andaman Islands or via the 100 latitude
channel south of them, en route to alternative ports on the isthmus. Bengal
ships might also worry their way through the becalmed Malacca Straits to points
of rendezvous in lower Sumatra or on the eastern Borneo coast beyond the
peninsula. Access to the same isthmian ports and to the upper reaches of the
Malacca Straits might be had during the entire period of the summer monsoon by
south Indian ships sailing directly across the bay. They could pass either
through the 100 channel between the Andamans and Nicobars or between
the Nicobars and the northern tip of Sumatra. In October seasonal winds could
also carry vessels to the southwest of Sumatra and down to the Sunda Straits
[between Sumatra and Java], thus avoiding the pirates and the doldrums of the
Malacca passage. The lack of ports of call and the perils of the open sea
obviously discouraged the use of this route.
At the lower end of
Sumatra, on the east coast of Borneo, and possibly at the western end of Java
as well, safe havens were developed where China-bound ships from the ports of
India, northern Sumatra, and Ceylon could await the north-blowing monsoon
winds. From such points, it was fairly easy to proceed up the Malay coast past
Patani, Singora, and Ligor across the Siam Gulf to Funan’s port of Go Oc
Eo near the mouth of the Mekong River. The journey then ran up the coast past
Champa to Chiao-chi port in Vietnam or on to Canton. Ships sailing northward
from eastern Borneo would probably make a landfall at Champa, which emerged as
a thoroughly Indianized state at the end of the second century. The return trip
by sea was equally time consuming. It was particularly dangerous in the Malacca
Straits, subject during the summer months to occasional stormy squalls
(“Sumatrans”) interspersed with extended periods of paralysing
calms which left stranded ships at the mercy of swarms of pirates.
However many of the
Sumatran and Indian ships may have undertaken during the early centuries to
negotiate the seasonally awkward all-sea journey to the ports of China, the
more feasible tactic was to synchronize the shuttle traffic to the isthmian
portage terminals from the two directions. This was accomplished for the most
part on the initiative of the Indian traders operating on both sides of the
peninsula. The three most widely used portage routes ran between Takuapa (above
the Junk Ceylon promontory) and Chaiya on the Bay of Bandon, between Trang
(Takkola) and Ligor, and between Kedah and Patani (Lankasuka). The older route
through the Mon state of Tun-sun (or Dvaravati) to Tavoy or Martaban on the
western side was less used for the China trade than were the more convenient
newly developed passageways below the Isthmus of Kra. Mergui port apparently
was used very little.
At a dozen or more
points on both sides of the isthmus, Indianized city-states developed. They
were apparently ruled by native chiefs allied with Indian merchant groups. The
development of such states was conditioned not only on port locations and
portage facilities, but also on the availability nearby of paddy land for food
supplies. Except for the Perlis area around Trang, the best locations for food
purposes and for political development were on the eastern shore, especially
around Ligor and on the Bay of Bandon. None of these city-state enclaves was
strong enough to conquer the rest of them, although several of them were
grouped from time to time under single governments.
Special reference must
be made to the role of the port of Kedah, which was used for both portage
purposes and as a point of rendezvous in connection with the passage through
the Malacca Straits. It was most easily approached from the west via the
passage between Sumatra and the Nicobar Islands during the summer monsoon. The
silhouette of Mount Kedah afforded a landfall to guide approaching ships. The
original port of Kedah was located up the then broad estuary of the Kual
Merbok, now swamp-filled, entering the sea some distance above Penang Island.
Ruins in the vicinity have been explored on the higher ground to the north,
adjacent to the foothills of the peak. In the course of time the centers of
settlement moved seaward. Kedah was widely used by Indian traders from the
early centuries of the Christian era and probably from the eighth century by
Muslim Arabs and Persians. Products available locally, besides food and water
supplies, included camphor, perfumed woods, tin, and gold. The port of Patani
at the eastern end of the Kedah portage route was also used by Indian traders
in the early second century. Kedah may have been used by ships making the
northward trip through the straits en route to Bengal, the south Indian ports,
or Ceylon.
The Mons ports of
Thaton, Martaban, and Tavoy were widely used for direct trade with Ceylon and
the Coromandel Coast of India, but less so in connection with the transit trade
with China. It was difficult to proceed from Bengal to the Mon ports during
either monsoon period partly because of treacherous tidal currents found to the
east of the Irrawaddy delta. Four routes of trade and communication led inland
from the Tenasserim ports of the Mons. The northernmost ran eastward to the
upper Menam Valley and thence to the Mun and Mekong Rivers, coming to a dead
end in the Korat plateau at Bassac, early center of power of the Chenla
Khymers. Another, used early by India-bound Chinese envoys, started at modern
Moulmein, proceeded by the Three Pagodas Pass southeastward into the Mekong
Valley, and the Tun-sun (Dvaravati) country to the west of the lower Menam. The
other two ran eastward from Tavoy and Mergui to the Gulf of Siam. Neither of
the latter two rivaled the importance of the Takuapa and Trang portages.”
Cady (1964), pp. 27-31.
By the ninth century, we find references
to po carrying up to 1,000 men plus merchandise:
“Further
information is to be found in the I-ch’ieh-ching yin-i, a
dictionary compiled by Huei-lin which according to Pelliot was completed in
A.D. 817. Huei-lin gives a number of instances of po and includes the
following passage:
“Ssu-ma
Piao, in his commentary on Chuang Tzü, says: “large
ocean-going ships are called po”. According to the Kuang ya:
‘po is an ocean-going ship”. It has a draught of 60 feet
(!). It is fast and carries 1000 men as well as merchandise. It is also called k’un-lun-po’.
From: Christie
(1957), pp. 347-348.
“On the
other [eastern] side of the [Indian] peninsula, Indians may have taken a more
active part in trade and exploration. As already mentioned, they certainly had
a profound influence on South-East Asia, even though no one is certain how this
came about. But the South-East Asians themselves, and the Malays in particular,
may have been equally active carriers. A hint about this is given in the Periplus:
“[There]
are the marts of Camara and Poduce and Sopatma [on the Coromandel Coast of
south-east India], where are local ships which sail along the coast as far as
Limyrice, and others which are very large vessels made of single logs bound
together and called sangara; those that cross over to Chryse and the
Ganges are called colandiophonta and are the largest.”
Both the sangara
(whose name means ‘outriggers’) and the colandiophonta were
probably Malayan or Indonesian rather than Indian. Chinese sources describe the
colandiophonta in more detail, under the name of K’un-lun
p’o, and confirm that they were indeed exceptionally large. Some of
them could be over 200 feet long, and carry six or seven hundred men and some
nine hundred tons of cargo – which makes them perhaps a shade larger than
those other leviathans of the Ancient World, the grain-ships that plied between
Alexandria and Rome. They were also probably faster: even the largest Roman
ships usually managed with a single enormous square sail, whereas a K’un-lu
p’o had four sails and may even have arranged them in the
fore-and-aft rig, like a schooner.” Sitwell (1984), pp. 146-147.
A major port of call for ships arriving
from both west and east, would have been the ancient port of Mantai (modern
Mannar) situated on a small island connected to the Sri Lankan coast by a
bridge and causeway:
“Mantai
is situated at the northwest tip of Sri Lanka, at the southern extremity of a
string of underwater reefs known as Adam’s Bridge, which link the island
to the Indian subcontinent. These reefs effectively block the passage of ships
between India and Sri Lanka, and the importance of this fact can hardly be
overstressed when considering the strategic significance of a major settlement
in this location. Literary references to Mantai refer to the ancient port as
Mahatittha (Pali), Mantottam (Tamil), and Matota (Singhalese). . . . It was
determined in 1982 that the earliest phase of the site is prehistoric, when a
Mesolithic campsite existed at Mantai, for which a radiocarbon date at the
beginning of the second millennium B.C. has been established. From at least as
early as the fifth century B.C., there appears to have been a continuous
occupation of the site up to the eleventh century A.D. With a depth of up to 10
m of occupational debris over a wide area, the potential exists for a detailed
analysis of the whole history of the site.
The particular interest
of the site lies in its strategic position, astride the main maritime route
between the Near and Far East, while at the same time representing a major
point of contact between South India and Sri Lanka. . . . Mantai’s long
history as a port would argue that it played an essential role in the history
of Sri Lanka; in a broader context the site is crucial for any study of Indian
Ocean trade, and indeed for the economic history of Asia. Comparable sites
doubtless exist in central Asia, where the history of Asian terrestrial trade
might be studied; but for maritime trade, Mantai is unique. Further, Mantai was
the leading port for Sri Lanka as a whole for at least fifteen hundred years.
With Anuradhapura as the capital, the northern dry zone was developed with the
aid of a highly sophisticated irrigation system, providing surplus wealth from
agriculture sufficient to fund international commerce. It was, indeed, the
collapse of the north, concomitant with the invasion by the Colas and the
capture of Anuradhapura in the early tenth century, which led to Mantai’s
ultimate demise.” Carswell (1991), p. 197.
“That
Mantai was an important link during the classical period for Roman trade across
the Indian Ocean is obvious, for parallels between rouletted ware have been
found at contemporary sites such as Kantarodai on the Jaffna Peninsula, and at
a number of sites on the Indian mainland, of which Arikamedu [near modern
Pondicherry] is to date the most important. The classification of the potter of
the Roman trade period is being undertaken at the moment, and it would be premature
at this stage to note more than its presence.
. . . . The earliest
references to Sri Lanka in Greek are by Onesicritus, Megasthenes, Eratosthenes,
and Hipparchus, none of whose works is preserved in full and none of whom
actually visited the island. With this caveat, many of the details from these
four writers’ works quoted by Pliny and Strabo are intriguingly apposite.
In particular, Pliny quotes Eratosthenes (b. 276 B.C.), who tells us that the
sea between India and Sri Lanka is very shallow, but that certain channels are
so deep that an anchor will not reach the bottom. Because of this, the ships
have two bows so they need not turn around when negotiating the narrows. This
equates very well with Mantai’s known role as a point of transhipment for
goods arriving from either east or west in long-distance shipping, to be
unloaded and shipped on by using a narrow channel (still extant) at the point
where Adam’s Bridge joins the island at Mannar.
Further details about
Sri Lanka are given in PME, which notes that the northern part of the
island, called Palaisimoundou and formerly Taprobane, was civilized and
produced pearls, precious stones, muslin and tortoise shell.9
However, it is Ptolemy’s Geographica, written in the second
century A.D., that is of particular interest. He locates a place called Modutti
Emporium on the northern side of the island on the right bank of a prominent
river, the Phasis.10
9 G.
W. B. Huntingford, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea by and Unknown Author,
with Some Extracts from Agatharkhides “On the Erythraean
Sea” [Hakluyt Society] (London 1980), 54.
10 E.
L. Stevenson ed. and trans., Geography of Claudius Ptolemy (New York
1932) 158. Stevenson’s translation of the Greek Modouttou from and
apparently corrupt medieval manuscript is given as Mordugi.
Carswell
(1991), p. 199; notes, p. 203.
“The
elephants from Sri Lanka were found to easily adapt for war and were considered
better than those from the mainland. Their excellent qualities were well known
to the Greeks even as far back as the 3rd Century BC, in the time of
Alexander the Great. Onescritus, who was an Admiral of the Fleet of Alexander
the Great and probably the first European to describe the trained elephants of
Ceylon, has stated that the elephants from Taprobane (later Ceylon and then Sri
Lanka) “are bigger, more fierce and furious for war service than those of
India.” Sixth Century writer Indicopleustes says that the elephant from
Sri Lanka was highly priced in India for its excellence in war.
Elephants
from Sri Lanka were exported to Kalinga by special boats from about 200 BC.
From the port of Mantai the present day Mannar. Such exports are also recorded
by Ptolemy in 175 AD.
By
this time Sri Lanka had also earned a reputation for skilled elephant management.
The Sinhala kings had special elephant trainers. They were the Kuruwe people
fro Kegalle. Training elephants caught from the wild, for both traditional
purposes and war, was the responsibility of these people. Evensons
(mahouts) who looked after the elephants after their training were trained by
the Kuruwe people. A brass model of an elephant with a number of movable joints
was used in the training of mahouts.
Records
show that even though Sri Lanka was exporting a large number of elephants in the
5th and 6th centuries BC, a number of elephants were also
imported into the country after the 4th century BC. This is apart
from the gifts that the ruling monarchs of India and Myanmar, (then Burma) sent
from time to time.” Jayewardene (2003).
“From Roman
levels at Mantai only two glass beads and a bangle of western origin were
uncovered. In contrast, at Arikamedu (whose loci are badly mixed) there are 56
glass beads that are likely from Roman-period levels, eleven of which are
certainly of Roman date, the same centuries as Arikamedu pottery at
Berenike.” Francis (1999).
“In this
context [i.e. in regard to the fact that most artefacts would have been made of
perishable materials and are, therefore, unavailable to the archaeologist], the
evidence for Mantai as a production and manufacturing center helps to extend
our comprehension of its crucial location. First of all, Mantai lies to the
west of the famous pearl banks in the Gulf of Mannar; pearls were a major
export until all the oysters died at the beginning of the present century. Both
whole and drilled pearls have been found in the excavations. So have shell
bangles, sawn from conch shells and engraved at Mantai; the shell waste and
bangle wasters occur in large numbers. From the earliest literary references to
Sri Lanka, the island has been renowned for the mining and export of precious
and semiprecious stones. These, too, have been found in worked and unworked
form at Mantai. Of particular interest is evidence for the production of
polished spherical quartz beads, with many bead blanks and half-drilled
specimens. Microanalysis of these beads has demonstrated that they were pierced
with a double diamond bit, a technique so far only recorded in modern Gujarat.
The beads from Mantai
provide some of the most striking evidence for external contacts. Over
twenty-five hundred specimens from all levels have been catalogued by Peter
Francis; they furnish evidence for a wide variety of materials, manufacturing
techniques, and international distribution. There is no doubt that Mantai was a
major bead-manufacturing site, particularly for Indo-pacific glass beads. The
fabrication of such glass beads is first recorded at Arikamedu (Phase A,
250-150 B.C.); their production at Mantai lasted for over a millennium.
Distribution of such beads was worldwide, from East Africa as far as Korea.
Among the earliest
imported beads at Mantai is one which is also the most complex, a spherical
bead with a sky-blue glass core overlaid with compound stripes of white and
yellow, and with mosaic cane “eyes” in white, yellow, and black. A
product of the Roman Empire, parallels have been found among Roman beads in
Germany. Another bead of similar date is of coral, a major Western export to
India and probably traded by the Romans for pearls. Imported beads include
examples of lapis lazuli, the source material for which was Afghanistan, and
for which striking parallels have been found at Nishapur. Many of the beads,
such as those of cornelian, are linked to similar beads excavated in
India.” Carswell (1991), pp. 200, 202.
“So far the sea alone has figured in this discussion as the way by which
Indian influence came into South-East Asia. It was the obvious way of travel
between India and the Archipelago; indeed the voyage from the Coromandel Coast
to the Straits of Malacca was a comparatively short one, and at the right time
of year was easy and safe even for small vessels. . . .
To reach the countries
in the eastern parts of the indo-Chinese mainland ships had to pass through
either the Malacca or the Sunda Straits.* Owing to the prevalence of piracy in
these narrow waters travellers sought to avoid them by using a number of short
cuts overland. Archaeological discoveries along these overland routes attest their
importance, not only in the early days of Indian penetration, but later also
when the empire of Śrivijaya maintained strict control over the straits
and forced all ships to put in at one or other of its ports.
The favourite short cut
was across the narrow Isthmus of Kra, from Takua Pa on the western side to
Ch’aiya on the eastern, or from Kedah to Singora. Farther north there was
a route from Tavoy over the Three Pagodas Pass and thence by the Kanburi river
to the valley of the Menam. Two ancient sites, P’ong Tuk and P’ra
Pathom lie on this route. Further still to the north lay a route to the Menam
region by Moulmein and the Raheng pass. . . . ”
*If,
indeed, the Sunda Straits even existed at this time. See the thought-provoking
book by David Keys: Catastrophe: An Investigation into the Origins of the
Modern World (1999), Random House, in which he propounds the plausible
theory that a massive volcanic eruption in the region of Krakatoa in the year
535 CE not only separated the islands of Sumatra and Java for the first time,
but caused immense worldwide effects on human history and the development of
cultures.
Hall (1968),
pp. 23-24.
“So far as the historical evidence goes, the first sign of states formed
in the manner that has been described in the preceding section show that they
were in existence by the end of the second century A.D. They appear in three
regions: (a) that of the lower Mekong and its delta, (b) north of
Hué in modern Annam, and (c) the northern part of the Malay
Peninsula. They probably existed elsewhere, say in Arakan and Lower Burma, but
the evidence is lacking. . . .
Funan’s capital
city was for some time Vyadhapura, ‘the city of hunters’, which lay
near the hill Ba Phnom and the village of Banam in the present Cambodian
province of Prei Veng. The Chinese say that it was 120 miles [193 km] from the
sea. Oc Eo, its port, on the maritime fringe of the Mekong delta bordering on
the Gulf of Siam some three miles from the sea has been the subject of
excavations by a French archaeologist.1 It was an immense urban
agglomeration of houses on piles intersected by a network of little canals,
part of an irrigation system extending for over 200 kilometres, which had been
constructed, with wonderful skill, to drain what had previously been ‘a
cesspool of soft mud barely held together by mangrove trees’,2
and to irrigate rice fields for the support of a large population mainly
concentrated in lake-cities. These were linked up with each other and with the
sea by canals large enough to take sea-going ships, so that it was possible for
Chinese travellers to talk about ‘sailing across Funan’ on their
way to the Malay Peninsula. Oc Eo was a centre of industry and trade: its site
bears evidence of maritime relations with the coast of the Gulf of Siam,
Malaya, Indonesia, India, Persia and, indeed, directly or indirectly with the
Mediterranean. It was situated on what was in its day the great maritime
highway between China and the West. The Funanaese were of Malay3
race, and still in the tribal state at the dawn of history. The culture of Oc
Eo itself is charactered by Mr. Malleret as half-indigenous, half-foreign; its
foreign affinities, he says, were almost entirely with India.
The earliest Chinese
reference to the kingdom comes from the pen of K’ang T’ai, who
together with Chu Ying was sent thither on a mission in the middle of the third
century.”
1
Louis Malleret, ‘Les Fouilles d’Oc-Éo (1944)’, BEFEO,
xvi, 1, 1951.
2 B.
P. Groslier, Angkor, Art and Civilisation, p. 17.
3 The
word here is used in its widest ethnic sense.
Hall (1968),
pp. 24-25.
“When the first emperor of the Chin dynasty came to the throne in 280,
the Governor of Tongking addressed a memorial to him complaining of the raids
of Lin-yi, aided by friendly bands from Funan, upon the commandery of Je-nan.
The Chin History, in recording this incident, says that the state to
which the Lin-yi raiders belonged had been founded about a century earlier by a
native official, Ch’u Lien, who had taken advantage of the weakness of
the Han dynasty (206 B.C.–A.D. 221) to carve out a kingdom for himself at
the expense of Je-nan in the year A.D. 192. The Chinese name for his kingdom
was Hsiang-lin, which was in fact the name of their sub-prefecture in which the
independence movement took place. It coincided almost exactly with the present
Annamite province of Thua-thien, in which the city of Hué is situated.
Thus does the state
later to be known as Champa first appear in history. Archaeological evidence
shows that the centre of its power lay just to the south of Hué region,
in the modern Annamite province of Quang-nam, which is so rich in
archaeological sites that it was evidently the sacred territory of Champa. But,
although the famous sites of Tra-kieu, Misön and Dong-duong have yielded
specimens of Amaravati art, no evidence exists, as in the case of neighbouring
Funan, of the dynastic traditions of the Kings of Champa or of the coming of
Indian influence.” Hall (1968), p. 28.
“The narrow coastal strip from the Porte d’Annam to the Col des
Nuages, which they [the Lin-yi] coveted, was probably at this time inhabited by
wild tribes in a backward state. Their own territory stretched down the coast
from the Col des Nuages to the Bay of Camranh, but they had settlements also in
the Mekong valley, the valleys of the Sesan and Song-ba, and the neighbouring
hills. They held the western slopes of the Annamite Chain up to the Mekong
valley from Stung Treng to the river Mun. They belonged to the Indonesian group
of peoples. Later the Indonesian settlements round the Bay of Nhatrang were to
form their southern province of Panduranga, now Phan-rang. But this formed part
of the empire of Funan when we first hear of the Lin-yi. The people of this
region were related to the Funanese rather than to China. They appear to have
received Indian influence as early as the beginning of the first century A.D.
According to Pamentier, their earliest art and architecture is Khymer rather
than Cham. Their region continued to form part of Funan until the Chenla
conquest of that country in the latter part of the sixth century.” Hall
(1969), p. 29.
In recent years, much more information
about the maritime routes has surfaced, although some scholars, aware of, and
probably overestimating, the risks and uncertainties of sea travel in ancient
times, do not accept its importance.
“Finally,
the third practical way, particularly from the end of the 1st century, and of
which the importance has quite recently been put forward by orientalists on the
basis of recent research, left from the southern coast of China, in the region
of Kuang chou [Canton] Bay, passed around the Indochinese peninsula, crossed
the Malacca straits and proceeded as far as the mouth of the Ganges. This
maritime route was serviced solely by Indian vessels. From the coast of the Bay
of Bengal, the merchants sailed up the river as far as “the Gates of the
Ganges”, then, navigability having ended, the merchandise was taken
overland to the ports of the west coast, where the Persians, Arabs and, before
long, the Europeans, went to acquire them. We will see, moreover, that the
archaeological excavations allowed the differentiation of the products coming
southern China through northeastern India, and those from northern China
through Central Asia. It seems that at the end of the 1st century the majority
of silk imported into the Mediterranean countries had been transported by the
maritime route and not the overland route which crossed Persia. The Periplus
of the Erythraean Sea indicates decisively that the “seric”
silks were loaded in Indian ports, as were the furs which also came from China,
pepper, cinnamon, perfumes, metals, dyes and medicinal products.”
Translated from: Boulnois (1992), p. 72.
“The
western world reached the Chinese by water as well, although only just. Ever
since Eudoxus breached the Arab monopoly of the sea trade with India, that
country had become increasingly integrated into the network of Graeco-Roman
trade. From the beginning of the first century A.D., fleets of ocean-going
freighters, sped by the monsoons, sailed there yearly, no longer just to the
Indus Valley but all along the coast down to the tip of the peninsula. Agents
of Graeco-Roman trading companies made their homes in India, settling down, in
time-honoured fashion, in separate little foreign quarters. They exported a
variety of Indian products – cinnamon, nard, cotton, above all pepper
– and also some Chinese, the most important, naturally, being silk.
Although a certain amount of the silk, as we have just noted, came in overland,
the largest part arrived by sea in Indian or Malay bottoms (the Chinese did not
get into overseas shipping until centuries later). It was inevitable that
westerners would move into this portion of the trade as well; by the end of the
second century A.D. their freighters had ventured into the waters east of
India, cutting across the mouth of the Bay of Bengal to trade with Malaya,
Sumatra, and Java. What drew them on more than anything else was the desire to
move nearer the source of silk. A Chinese account [in the Hou Hanshu]
mentions that in ‘the ninth year of the Yen-hsi period, during the
Emperor Huan-ti’s reign [CE 166]... the king of
Ta-ts’in, An-tun, sent an embassy which, from the frontier of Jih-nan
[Annam], offered ivory, rhinoceros horns, and tortoise shell. From that time
dates the intercourse with this country.’ Ta-ts’in is the Chinese
name for the Roman Empire, and An-tun is Antoninus, the family name of Marcus
Aurelius. The account goes on to comment about the very ordinary gifts the
embassy had brought for the emperor; there were, for example, no jewels. Most
likely it was not an official body at all but a group of shippers who, to get
one jump a head of their competitors, were trying to buy their silk directly
from China instead of through middlemen.” Casson (1974), pp. 124-125.
“One way
of by-passing the Parthians, the sea-route to the south of their country, has
been discussed in Chapter Eight. Though a great success in some respects (it
cut the costs of spices considerably), it was less important to the silk
business. From China to the Roman Empire was a long way, nearly twice as long
as the overland journey, and the system of monsoon-winds meant that one often
had to wait some time before making a particular leg of the voyage. Besides,
several stages (such as the Red Sea, the west coast of India, and the Straits
of Malacca) teemed with natural and man-made dangers to navigation. Direct
sea-borne contact between Roma and China was always rare.” Sitwell (1984),
p. 189.
“Meanwhile
the maritime route remained so risky, so long, so full of ambushes for the
little sailing ships of the Westerners, succumbing to typhoons and other sorts
of adversities, that trade took, as far as possible, the overland route.
This was possible when,
at the end of the 1st century, four great prosperous empires, stable,
militarily powerful, absorbed a large part of Eurasia: in the West, Rome, in
full Imperial flower; in the Far East, China of the second Han dynasty; in the
East, the kingdom of the Great Kushans encompassing Afghanistan and Northern
India, was at the peak of its existence. In the middle the Parthians,
monopolising middlemen. All these empires followed a commercial strategy. From
this exceptional situation came the overland silk route.” Translated
from: Boulnois (1992), p. 77.
“All
trade between the Persian Gulf and the Taurus, direct by sea from Indian
Barygaza, or sea-borne from Hormuz through Seistan, or overland altogether, was
obliged to pass through the Parthian sieve.
But the distant Romans
had a good name in China. ‘They traffic by sea with Parthia and India . .
. honest in their transactions and . . . their kings always desired to send
embassies to China, but the Parthians wished to carry on trade with them in
Chinese silks, and it is for this reason that they were cut off from
communication. This lasted till the ninth year of the Yen-hsi period (A.D. 166)
when the king . . . An-tun (Marcus Aurelius) sent an embassy.’ The trade
was continually thwarted, and regular only when Romans and Parthians were at
peace; and about A.D. 160 – when the straits of Malacca were crossed and
direct commerce with China started – the peak of the sea trade was
already over. By then the strengthened Roman frontier held the South Arabian
spice route at one end and the Pontic route round the Caspian at the other, the
only two trading channels that could escape the Parthian dues.” Stark
(1968), p. 192.
“The
Arabs extended their [the Phoenicians’] trade. By 100 B.C. a line of busy
ports had grown around the Persian Gulf to service caravans and ships plying
between India, Egypt, east Africa, the Middle East, the Mediterranean. As well
as pearls, Italian wine, gold, cloves, nutmeg, mace, they carried a new,
extremely profitable product, slaves from east Africa. That nasty trade
increased over the next 200 years. Ivory, hides and cinnamon made up the rest
of the cargoes.
The Chinese began to
trade. Under orders from the Han emperor Wu (141 B.C. to 87 B.C.) sailors handpicked
from what are now the provinces of Guandong and Guangxi explored the southern
seas in search of precious goods. Then just before or after the birth of
Christ, a great new land route opened in the north.” Rolls (1992), p. 2.
Although there are not many written
accounts of early Indonesian shipping, it is generally accepted that the
Indonesian settlement of Madagascar and nearby ports of southeastern Africa
developed during the first few centuries CE.
Madagascar was
apparently uninhabited when the Indonesians from Southern Borneo arrived, and
although there was later mixing around the coasts with Africans and Arab
traders, the people of the interior are still mainly of Indonesian stock.
Malagasy, the national language is closely related to languages from southern
Borneo.
“During
winter, Central Asia’s extreme cold causes its air mass to become dense
and heavy, while air over the ocean is warmer and lighter. This differential in
density now causes the heavy Central Asian air to flow out against the lighter
ocean-influenced air, so that from December to March dry winds from Central
Asia blow out over the continent towards the oceans. During the intervening
months the winds are at their most unpredictable. Although in spring the shift
in wind direction occurs rather quickly, in the month of April, the autumn
transition from inward to outward is prolonged, causing variable winds from
September through November. Taking advantage of this seasonal wind pattern,
Malay sailors began to ride the monsoons. They departed with the wind at their
back, sailing for thousands of miles to distant locations. There they waited
until the winds changed direction, which allowed them to sail home with the
wind still at their back.
So far there is little
consensus regarding when Malay sailors first reached the East African coast and
Madagascar, more than 3,000 miles to their west, but some believe that contact
occurred relatively early in the first millennium B.C.E. The uncertain date
notwithstanding, in the process of sailing across thousands of miles of
southern ocean, the Malay sailors evidently carried a number of plants from
Asia to Africa, including bananas, coconuts, and the cocoyam. (One East African
term for cocoyam is derived from a Malay word [Watson, 1983: 68].) The tuning
scales of the Malayo-Polynesian xylophone also appear to have ridden with the
Malays to Africa, although precisely how this instrument got from East Africa
to West Africa, where it can still be heard today, remains controversial (Jones,
1971: 115–19).
The
Malay sailors may also have been riding the monsoons of the Indian Ocean to
supply the Mediterranean market with cinnamon – a product of southern
China – even before the development of an overland or overseas silk
route. The Greek word for cinnamon was derived from a Malayo-Polynesian word,
through Phoenician and Hebrew. Even though cinnamon was never grown
commercially in Africa, Egyptian and Hebrew texts dated to the first millennium
B.C.E. speak of cinnamon coming from Africa, leading several scholars to
suggest that Malay sailors were responsible for bringing this cinnamon from the
coasts of the South China Sea to East Africa. Pliny, writing in the first
century C.E., describes an already well-developed trade in cinnamon. The men who
brought the cinnamon “put out to sea . . . when the east winds are
blowing their hardest; these winds drive them on a straight course . . . from
gulf to gulf.” Pliny calls their vessels “rafts,” a plausible
but mistaken description of the Malays’ double outrigger canoe (Taylor,
1976: 45). The cinnamon they provided could then have been traded north by the
East Africans until it reached Ethiopia, where Mediterranean merchants
purchased it.
There is also a
thirteenth-century Arab text that refers to a Malay settlement in the vicinity
of Aden sometime around the Roman conquest of Egypt in 31 B.C.E. Vast fleets of
Malay outrigger canoes came and went from this place, it tells us, but
eventually the settlers “grew weak, lost their seafaring skills, and were
overrun by neighbouring peoples.” (Taylor, 1976: 25, 39). According to
the text, this happened after Egypt’s decline, and scholars have
tentatively dated the settlement to the first century CE.
At roughly the same time
Malay communities were established on the island of Madagascar, some 250 miles
off the East African coast, where their descendants still constitute the
majority of the island’s population and Malayo-Polynesian languages are
still spoken today by almost all. Given the many clusters of islands in the
Indian Ocean and the Malay use of islands for navigating, their likely route to
East Africa would have been by way of such island clusters, namely, the
Maldives, the Chagos, the Seychelles, and the Comores (Taylor, 1976: 30, 45–46).”
Shaffer (1996), pp. 15-16.
Capt. Sedana sails ancient trade route
Features - April 08, 2004
Leony Aurora, The Jakarta Post, Jakarta
Some people
considered Navy Captain I Gusti Putu Ngurah Sedana brave for attempting a
voyage from Jakarta to Ghana aboard a traditional wooden sailing ship. Others
just thought he was crazy. But everyone will be amazed by the stories he has to
tell.
The captain
recently commanded the Borobudur Samudraraksa, a ship designed based on
reliefs from the Borobudur Temple in Central Java, to retrace the cinnamon
route taken by Indonesian merchants in the eighth century to sell spices to
Africa.
Fourteen or 15
seafarers, half the crew foreigners and half Indonesians, were on board at all
times. The Indonesian crew included three boatmakers and 10 inexperienced
civilians, who took turns on the four legs of the journey.
The ship, 4.25
meters wide and 18 meters long, contained no iron or nails, with coconut fiber
binding it together. Although it contained state-of-the-art equipment -- a
global positioning satellite and NavTex to broadcast information on navigation
routes -- the ship was at the mercy of nature, with only two sails to catch the
winds, its sole driving force.
The first time
the Borobudur encountered a big storm was when it passed through the
Mozambique channel, going from Madagascar to Cape Town.
Putu was
resting in his bunk when he heard the wind screaming between the ropes.
“I knew there were big winds coming,” said Putu. “We
couldn’t run from them.”
It was 11 a.m.
when the wind picked up and the rain began. Thunder and lightning rent the sky
as the ship was tossed about helplessly on waves six to seven meters tall.
Trapped in the
eye of the storm, the crew panicked. “They just stood there,
stunned,” said Putu.
At the yells of
the captain some of them came back to life, put on their life jackets and tied
themselves to the mast or any unmovable object. Soaked to the bone, they
managed to bring the smaller sail down, but the wind was so strong that it was
impossible to take down the main sail, which was eight meters-by-15 meters in
size.
The ship then
tipped sideways, so far that it almost capsized. “We knew we would have
to rip the sail,” said Putu. But the wind, at 40 knots, was faster than
them and shredded the main sail.
“Those
who worked on the sails first were the Indonesians,” said Putu, pride
written all over his face. “The foreigners ran to the back, huddling near
the lifeboats, while we were on the deck playing kite with the sails,” he
said with a small laugh.
Later in the
journey, when the Borobudur faced another big storm near the Cape of
Good Hope, the crew knew what to do and was able to manage the situation. But
after that first storm, two of the foreigners asked to leave the ship at the
first port they saw, in Richard Bay, South Africa.
“This got
to the Indonesian crew too, who started thinking about quitting,” said
Putu.
He could endure
the weather, the storms and the hardships, but when his crew wanted to quit,
his spirit sank.
Together, the
team covered some 10,000 nautical miles in more than six months, leaving
Jakarta on Aug. 15, 2003, and reaching Ghana on Feb. 23, 2004.
“I was
ordered to lead the voyage,” said Putu, who looks the part of a Navy
officer with a well-trimmed moustache and a no-nonsense posture.
“I was
disheartened at first, but an order is an order. So I just had faith.”
It was not a
lack of competence that worried Putu, his abundant experience on the sea told
him how dangerous the trip would be.
Ever since he
entered the military academy in 1990, the captain has been fascinated with
sails. “The free air of the ocean blows away stress,” he said. And
so he took up windsurfing and sailing.
In 1996, Putu
sailed around the world in 14 months aboard the vessel the Arsa.
“But that was different from the Borobudur. With a modern ship,
one can easily turn on the engine and run from bad winds,” he said.
At that time,
his wife, Diah Sriwahyuni Purnamasari, was pregnant with their first child.
Putu saw his daughter for the first time when she was 10 months old.
“We named
her Genova, because my husband was in Genoa when she was born,” said
Diah, 30. The couple has two other children, a 6-year-old girl and a 3-year-old
boy.
Putu has taken
part in many competitions, including the Sydney-Hobart trip in 1998 and the
Raja Muda Cup in Malaysia in 1999. In both events, Indonesia won.
“I’m
always astonished when people underestimate Indonesia. On the sea, we
rule!”
In his last
event, the Singapore Strait Regatta competition in 2000, Putu was the skipper and
his team took third place. “We still achieved something although our
ships are less modern than those from other countries.”
Diah was proud
that her husband was trusted with bringing Indonesia’s name abroad, but
hopes that now he will have the chance to stay on land for a while. “He
has to continue his education for his career.”
It has been six
years since Putu became a captain, following the first Post-Graduate Education
for Officers in Surabaya. In June, he plans to take up the second course, which
will last for six months, to become a major.
In the
meantime, he will take a posting on a warship.
“I
don’t know where I get my love of the sea from, all I know is if I
don’t see the ocean in a month, I develop a headache,” said Putu.
Well,
Indonesia’s ancestors were masters of the seas.”
G. The Water Cisterns on the Route
between Petra and Wadi Sirhan.
Several years ago I first began to come to
the conclusion that Sifu stood for Petra and Qielan for Wadi Sirhan in the Weilue,
and that the text indicated that a trade route connected the two. I contacted
several specialists on the early history of the region who insisted that there
were no significant sources of water in Nabataean or Roman times between the
oasis of Al Jafr (to the east of Ma’an) and the first wells in the Wadi
Sirhan – a distance of at least 150 km. This would seem to rule out the
route for regular caravans of any size.
During early 2002,
however, I contacted Daniel Gibson, the author of The Nabataeans: Builders of Petra, and the “Webmaster”
of the excellent Nabataea.net website. He was living with his family at the
time with some Bedouins not far from Petra. He wrote back that he also did not
know of any water sources in the region but he was having a meeting with some
of the tribal elders in a couple of days (some of whom had long ago lived in
that region), and he would ask them about it. They told him that there was a
large ancient water cistern about halfway along the route and Dan checked and
found some reference to it on maps in Amman. He wanted to go and visit the site
but, with the build-up to the last war in Iraq it was considered unsafe for him
to visit the region which is close to the border of Saudi Arabia.
So, Dan posted a request
for information on his website and was thrilled to hear from a young woman,
Antonia Willis, who had previously travelled in the region, taken photos and
actually made some rough measurements of a cistern which was some 10 metres
across the entrance! She also sent copies of photos of the cistern and has
since sent me several letters and a map.
I will quote from a
couple of her email letters below as they speak for themselves [notes in square
brackets are mine]. It is quite clear from her accounts that the route was not
only possible for caravan traffic but was quite likely used as such:
“Just
some quick thoughts about the area between Wadi Sirhan & Petra. When
I’ve got time I’ll email you the grid refs but off the top of my
head, there is this to say:
Between the eastern
escarpment of the Jafr depression and the Wadi Hudruj (my most easterly point
of travel was the police border fort at Mshash Hudruj) are the cistern Dan
mentioned AND a number of other sites where water collection probably occurred.
Wadi Hudruj you know runs roughly n/e to s/w out of the Wadi Sirhan and would
be a naturally through-route. The Wadi where I saw it was full of acacia and
undoubtedly water collection there could have happened; unfortunately the
bloody great anti-tank ditch (the scar visible on sat images) and Saudi border
post there made exploration impossible.
Not far south of the
cistern is a spot marked as “Roman Pools” on a current air map
[about 37o 27’ E; 30o 15’ N ]I was working
off; here we saw surface signs of water collection and a fairly dense scatter
of sherds. The chart I used was TPC (Tactical Pilotage Chart) series GSGS, map
sheet H-5B published 1991 by our MoD. You Aussies fly everywhere, so maybe you
can get hold of it over there. If not let me know, and I will send you a copy
from the UK.
If
the Wadi Hudruj is a poss conduit, travellers from Wadi Sirhan to Petra would
not have to be more than 2 days’ journey from water, I think.
Also
interesting is the poss route Azraq oasis - Bayir - Jafr and then east (or the
same in reverse). There are very substantial remains, and heaps of
Nabataean classical fineware sherds, at Bayir; then it is not too far to the
cistern/”pools”/Wadi Hudruj.
Re navigation; stellar,
of course, but I was interested to see that the modern Bedu police have marked
out a couple of routes across the Jafr depression and the empty stretch east of
it by piling up mounds of sand/soil some 5 feet high at line-of-sight intervals
- no reason why someone couldn’t have thought of that a few thousand years
ago. . . . ” Email from Antonia Willis 27 July, 2003.
“I’ve
asked for the scanned map to be sent to you via my old office - hope it’s
got to you.
Cistern
depth; again, hard to gauge, because the precarious overhanging lip
(you’ve seen the pics) and the shade cast by it meant that there was
no obvious point from which to take a sounding - had we been proper and
methodical about it, we would have taken several, but to tell you the truth I
really thought I’d be back soon after to do a better job. HOWEVER - we
slung a water bottle on string down over the lip at what looked to be the
deepest (most shadowed) area we could safely access from the rim, and it was I
see from my notes 18 metres approx. The other dimensions you can guess at from
the photos using the human figures as scale indicators. But to repeat, this was
one of TWO water collection sites between the eastern escarpment of the Jafr
depression and the Wadi Hudruj as intersected by the Saudi border - and it
would not surprise me in the least to find more. The mapping there has never
been seriously picked up on since the 1948 Royal Engineers survey which had
many white spaces on it.
I showed pics of the
deep cistern to Rupert Chapman at the PEF in London and he suggested that it
was a karstic depression [limestone formation of caverns, caves, etc] lending
itself to much water collection through the ages. . . . ” Email from
Antonia Willis 34 August, 2003.
I will also quote here from Dan
Gibson’s excellent website, which can be accessed at: http://nabataea.net/
“The
Nabataeans greatest accomplishment was probably their system of water
management. They developed a system to collect rainwater using water channels, pipes,
and underground cisterns. Added to this, they developed very strong, waterproof
cement, some of which is still in existence to this day.
They
also developed sophisticated ceramic pipelines and reservoirs using gravity
feeds (siphons or inverted siphons), that served the developing urban centers.
Outside of the cities, dams closed off wadis to collect water during the rainy
season, while stone circles or terraces retarded runoff from slopes and trapped
valuable topsoil so that their irrigation lines could feed crops.
The
Nabataeans were experts at collecting water and storing it in underground
cisterns. All along their caravan routes, secret water collection systems
collected water and stored it for later use. The ancient historian Diodorus
[Didorus Siculus 90-21 BCE] noted: “For in the waterless region, as it
is called, they have dug wells at convenient intervals and have kept the
knowledge of them from people of all other nations, and so they retreat in a
body into this region out of danger. For since they themselves know about the
places of hidden water and open them up, they have for their use drinking water
in abundance.” (II.48.2)
Diodorus
also noted in another place: “They take refuge in the desert using this
as a fortress; for it lacks water and cannot be crossed by others, but to them
alone, since they have prepared subterranean reservoirs lined with stucco, it
furnishes safety. As the earth in some places is clayey and in others is of
soft stone, they make great excavations in it, the mouths of which they make
very small, but by constantly increasing the width as they dig deeper, they
finally make them of such size that each side has a length of about 100 feet.
After filling these reservoirs with rain water, they close the openings, making
them even with the rest of the ground, and they leave signs that are known to
themselves but are unrecognizable to others. They water their flocks every
other day, so that, if they flee, or wander through waterless places, they may
not need a continuous supply of water.” (XIX.94.6-9).”
This account of the cisterns is confirmed
by Alois Musil:
“The
cisterns which he mentions [i.e. Diodorus (fl. 1 cent. BCE), in his Biblioteca historica]
are the wells known today as mḳûr.
These are usually dug out in the rocky soil to a depth of about four meters.
They are pear-shaped and have a narrow neck which is generally covered with a
large stone. The rain water from the surrounding rocky areas flows into this
neck and falls through the cavities beneath the stone into the cistern. A
stranger not properly acquainted with the region and with the habits of the
natives will ride round such a rain well without noticing it. Fragments of dry
plants and sand are apt to drift up against one side of the stone, so that it
looks as if it has always been lying there.” Musil (1926), pp. 309-310.
From the above accounts it is clear that
there was almost certainly a well-used caravan route or routes between Petra
and Wadi Sirhan from whence well-established routes led to the head of the Persian
Gulf and also to the ancient trading centre of Gerrha (Angu) to the southeast.
See also note 17.3.
H. The Identification of
the city of Angu with Ancient Gerrha and Modern Thaj.
“Strabo
provides an absolute indication of Gerrha’s location when he writes,
‘After sailing along the coast of Arabia for a distance of two thousand
four hundred stadia, one comes to Gerrha, a city situated on a deep gulf’
(16. 3. 3). Strabo’s description of Androsthenes’ exploratory
voyage in the Gulf, which preceded the statement just quoted, gives the
impression that the calculation of the 2,400 stadia is meant to commence at the
southern Babylonian town of Teredon, an impression strengthened when we
consider that Pliny says: ‘those travelling by water from the kingdom of
Parthia come to the village of Teredon below the confluence of the Euphrates
and the Tigris’ (NH 6. 32. 145). If Teredon was located somewhere
in the vicinity of modern Basra, where does a journey of 2,400 stadia arrive on
the Arabian coast? Calculating at the rate of 10 stadia to the mile, as
Strabo’s principal informant on Arabia, Eratosthenes, did, we reach a
figure of roughly 384 km. for the distance from Teredon to Gerrha.* Measured
from the Basra area, this places us somewhere in the region of the modern port
of al-Jubayl in eastern Saudi Arabia.
But both
Strabo and Pliny suggest that the problem is yet more complicated. In
describing the east coast of Arabia, Pliny speaks of ‘the bay of
Gerrha’, sinus Gerraicus, and ‘the town of Gerrha’, oppidum
Gerra (NH 6. 32. 147). Strabo says that Gerrha was ‘a city
situated on a deep gulf’, but several lines later he tells us that
‘the city is two hundred stadia distant from the sea’ (16. 3. 3).
A. Sprenger was perhaps the first scholar to point to a simple explanation for
this apparent contradiction, when he suggested that there was both a port
of Gerrha on the Gulf coast, and a town of Gerrha located inland, and
one is reminded of similar cases throughout the world where an important
‘port city’ actually lies some distance from the sea, but is paired
with a docking-harbour.” Potts (1990), pp. 88-89. [A Greek stadium measured 185
metres, so 2,400 stadia was about 444 kilometres, which is just about exactly
the distance by river and sea between Basra and al-Jubayl on a modern map].
“Ahead
lay three mesas and a jumble of low hills, and suddenly we were over Thaj. I
had seen air-photographs, and knew what to expect. But I was not prepared for
the scale. Below lay a considerable city, the parallelogram of its defensive
walls plainly visible. Around it stretched fields of tumuli, many of the mounds
oddly ring-shaped, a circular rampart with a hollow in the middle. We flew back
and forth over the site half a dozen times while I took in the scene. There
were no standing walls or buildings, apart from a cluster of obviously recent
stone houses. Everything was covered in sand and rubble, but the general
outline was clear. And one thing was completely obvious.
Thaj was a city on the
edge of a lake. It stretched for almost a mile along the lake-shore, and half a
mile or more inland. Only there was no lake . . . to the northern side of the
city stretched a large salt-pan, a sabkha.
Now, sabkhas are
areas of salt mud which clearly once have been water. They are dried-up lakes.
They are useless to man. There would be no reason to build a city beside a sabkha.
Therefore this one-time lake had still been a lake when Thaj was built. This
was going to tie up with our speculations on the prehistoric climate of Arabia,
for only a higher rainfall, or at least a higher water-table, could have held
water in the lake-bed. We needed to date Thaj.” Bibby (1970), p. 316.
“Before
leaving the subject of the architecture at Thaj, it is important to stress that
the ancient town there is constructed on a scale unmatched anywhere else in
pre-modern al-Hasa. The city wall alone, with its circuit of 2,535 m. and
average width of 4.5 m., represents a gigantic quantity of cut stone. Assuming
a minimum height of 2 m., and leaving aside for the moment the corner towers
and probable turrets, no less than 22,815 cu. m. of stone would have been
required, equivalent to a cube c. 28.4 m. on a side. Nor does this begin
to take into consideration the hundreds of buildings on the site as well. The
question naturally arises, therefore, what the source or sources of the
limestone used at Thaj may have been. It has generally been assumed that it was
all local, an assumption supported by the presence of numerous large limestone
jabals in the district; but none of these show any sign of quarrying on a large
scale. Near Jubayl, however, is a large limestone quarry which has long been
known, and in view of the fact that Thaj is connected with the coast by a route
leading directly to Jubayl, it may be suggested that the building stone used
there was quarried here. During the Second World War, camels used for transport
by ARAMCO carried loads of between 336 and 448 lb. (between 152.72 and 203.63
kg.). This would more than accommodate some of the larger limestone ashlars
noted at Thaj, making it possible to conceive of such large quantities of stone
having been transported overland by camel caravans in antiquity.” Potts
(1990), pp. 47-48.
“One
additional point which must be borne in mind, however, is the fact that
Meredat’s victories [which seem to include ‘Oman’. He issued
a coin from Seleucia in 142 AD on which he refers to himself as
BACIΔEΥC OMAN] were, in some measure, Parthia’s as well. As the
Seleucia texts attest, Meredat was the son of a former Parthian king of kings,
and as such a member of an élite Parthian family. Moreover, it is not
unlikely that he was installed on the Characene throne by his uncle Osroes I,
following the latter’s removal of the pro-Roman king of Characene,
Attambelos, sometime after 116. Thus, to the extent that Meredat and his family
were a leading element in the ruling Parthian aristocracy, his extension of
influence over the central and lower Gulf must be seen as a boon to Parthia.
Meredat’s ambitions and pretensions, however, must have been indeed
great, for on his coins he is depicted wearing both the diadem and the
crown which were the prerogative of the Parthian king of kings. To have worn
the diadem alone would have been normal, but to assume the crown as well
suggests that Meredat considered himself the equal of the highest ruler of
Parthia.
That the fortunes of
Meredat were soon to change, however, is proved now by the new Seleucia bilingual.
The Greek text is dated to 462 Sel., AD 150/1, while the Parthian version
specifies that the statue bearing the inscriptions was erected on 5 July (the
17th day of Tir) of that year. These important sources recount the victory of
Vologases IV over Meredat, whom he ‘expelled’ from Mesene. We are
not told anything of the further fate of Meredat, but it is likely that his
influence in the Gulf rapidly vanished upon his defeat. Indeed, it is not
unlikely that his very power there, which must have entailed considerable
commercial gain, and perhaps prompted him to assume both diadem and crown shown
on his coins, was one of the reasons why Vologases was prompted to challenge
him.” Potts (1990), pp. 325-326
“During
the second century [BCE] changes can be detected in the direction of
Gerrha’s foreign trade. Agatharchides’ report of Gerrhaeans at
Petra and in Palestine shows us that at some time in the beginning or middle of
the century the Gerrhaeans began trading with the Nabataeans. Juba’s remark,
preserved by Pliny, that caravans from Carra, i.e. Gerrha, ‘used
to’ make the journey to Syria-Palestine, may also be an echo of the
circumstances described by Agatharchides, although the two need not reflect
entirely similar circumstances. The problem here is to determine under what
political conditions Gerrha’s western trade was carried out in the second
century [BCE].
Following the Seleucid
victory at Panion in 200 BC, Syria fell to the Seleucids and remained in their
grip for most of the second century. If Agatharchides’ statement reflects
conditions during his own lifetime (c. 200-131 BC), then it was written
at a time when Syria, as well as Palestine proper, was a Seleucid domain. Thus,
trade with Syria and Palestine entailed no loss of revenue for the Seleucids,
and was, in any case, a more direct route to the Mediterranean than the route
via Babylonia. Concrete evidence of Gerrhaean traders in the Aegean during this
period comes from Delos. . . .
There is nothing to
suggest, however, that Seleucid control in the west affected the Nabataean
realm. Thus, while the Seleucids must have had no objections to seeing
Gerrhaean caravans going to Syro-Palestine, trade with Petra was probably
another matter. Most probably, Gerrhaean trade with the Nabataean capital was
an offshoot of their trade with Seleucid Syria, but it is possible that this
was done illicitly, from the Seleucid point of view. In this regard, it is
interesting to reconsider a proposal put forward by Tarn in 1929. Starting out
from the Agatharchides fragment cited above, Tarn tried to explain why the
Gerrhaeans should have sent caravans to Petra, when Petra was itself at the
head of a direct caravan route to southern Arabia. Rather than a case of
sending coals to Newcastle, Tarn suggested that the Nabataeans may have been
barred from receiving South Arabian products by the Ptolemies. It has been
suggested that Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246 BC) succeeded in 278/7 in
wresting control of the Marib-Petra incense route away from the Nabataeans,
seizing the route below Petra, and founding Ampelone on the coast of the Hejaz
as a port to which the caravan wares coming from southern Arabia could be
diverted and trans-shipped directly to Myos Hormos in Egypt, thus bypassing the
Nabataeans. Given this state of affairs, it could well have been profitable for
the Gerrhaeans to ship merchandise which they had already carried forty days
from Hadhramaut to Gerrha (Strabo 16. 4. 4) overland to Petra. Tarn’s
error, however, lay in taking Agatharchides’ report as proof that Gerrha
was trading with the Nabataeans in the third century BC. On the contrary,
unless it is archaistic, it reflects the situation in the second century BC.
Finally, the rise of
Charax in the late second century BC and its growing commercial importance in
the late first century BC may explain why, as Juba says, the Gerrhaeans at some
point made yet another reversal and began sending their wares to Charax and the
Parthian empire.” Potts (1990), pp. 95-97.
“The
principal reports concerning the foreign trade of Gerrha are listed below in
chronological order:
.
. . the Gerrhaeans import most of their cargoes on rafts to Babylonia, and
thence sail up the Euphrates with them, and then convey them by land to all
parts of the country . . . (Aristobulus (contemporary of Alexander) apud Strabo
16. 3. 3)
.
. . the Gerrhaeans traffic by land, for the most part, in the Arabian
merchandise and aromatics ... (Eratosthenes (c.284-202 BC) apud Strabo
16. 3. 3)
. . . Petra and Palestine where the Gerrhaeans, the Minaeans and all the Arabs
who live in the region bring incense from the highlands, it is said, and their
aromatic products . . . (Agatharchides (c.200-131 BC), in C.
Müller, Geographi Graeci Minores, § 87).
‘For this
trade [with Elymais and Karmania] they opened the city of Carra [Gerrha] where
their market was held. From here they all used to set out on the twenty-day
march to Gabba and Syria-Palestine. According to Juba’s report they began
later for the same reason to go to the empire of the Parthians. It seems to me
that still earlier they brought their goods to the Persians rather than to
Syria and Egypt, which Herodotus confirms, who says the Arabs paid 1,000
talents of incense yearly to the kings of Persia. Juba (c. 25 BCE-CE 25) and Pliny, NH (AD 77) 12. 40. 80).
These accounts suggest
that the trajectory of Gerrha’s foreign trade experienced a number of
shifts through time. In the late fourth century BC, i.e. during
Alexander’s lifetime, Aristobulus says Gerrha shipped merchandise to
Babylonia by sea. At some point in the third century, as Eratosthenes tells us,
Gerrha began to export its goods by land. This may refer to land transport in
the same direction, i.e. to Babylonia. On the other hand, it may point to a
shift away from Seleucid Babylonia towards Ptolemaic Egypt and Syria. . . .
” Potts (1990), pp. 90-91.
Later, the Seleucids seem to have regained
control of the trade from Gerrha during the visit of Antiochus III to Gerrha in
205 BCE:
“Rostovtzeff,
The Social and Economic History, 1, 458: ‘The Seleucids dealt with
the Gerrhaeans in much the same way as the Ptolemies with the Nabataeans. In
order to prevent the Gerrhaeans from robbing the Seleucid ships that plied
between Babylonia and India, they maintained a flotilla in the Persian Gulf. At
the same time they endeavoured, by diplomatic action and military intervention,
to keep the Gerrhaeans more or less under control and to obtain from them a
large proportion of the Arabian and Indian goods held by their merchants. In
this light we are better able to understand the account given by Polybius (in
the fragmentary form in which we have it) of the expedition of Antiocus III
against the Gerrhaeans. It was a military demonstration on a large scale, which
did not lead to the conquest of Gerrha, but was imposing enough to frighten the
Gerrhaeans and make them increase the quantity of merchandise they sent to
Seleucia, at the expense probably of the Nabataeans and the
Ptolemies.’” Potts (1990), p. 93, n. 298. See also ibid.,
pp. 91-95
“During the second century (BCE) changes can
be detected in the direction of Gerrha’s foreign trade.
Agatharchides’ report of Gerrhaeans at Petra and in Palestine shows us
that at some time in the beginning or middle of the century the Gerrhaeans
began trading with the Nabataeans. Juba’s remark, preserved by Pliny,
that caravans from Carra,306 i.e. Gerrha, ‘used to’ make
the journey to Syria-Palestine, may also be an echo of the circumstances
described by Agatharchides, although the two need not reflect entirely similar
circumstances. The problem here is to determine under what political conditions
Gerrha’s western trade was carried out in the second century.”
Potts (1990), p. 95
The Weilue seems to indicate that
the “(walled) city of Angu, on the frontier of Anxi (Parthia)”, was
under Parthian control d 2nd century CE – the period when this information was apparently gathered.
This is of great interest because it supports the growing body of evidence
suggesting that Gerrha also came under Parthian control during the 2nd
century CE:
“The
decline of Gerrha and the waning of eastern Arabia’s fortunes in general
after the Seleucid era have sometimes been attributed to Characene and Parthian
usurpation of the Gulf trade route between India and the west. The exact role
of the Parthians in eastern Arabia itself, however, has never been clear. The
archaeological evidence for contact between north-eastern Arabia and the
Parthian world has been reviewed above. Early authorities were divided on the
question of the nature and extent of Parthian political influence in the area.
Nöldeke, for example, who emphasized the extent of contact between the
Persian and Arabian sides of the Gulf, considered it unlikely that the
Parthians actually controlled the region whereas Glaser was convinced that they
did. O. Blau believed that the Azd Oman, in particular, put considerable
pressure on the region of Mesene and Charax, and that this resulted in the
establishment of a Parthian political presence in the area.
In any case, nothing
suggests that Parthian political or commercial influence extended to eastern
Arabia before the reign of Meredat who, as we have seen (ch. 3 above), had a
satrap on Thiloua/os (Tylos) in AD 131. It could be that, following
Meredat’s expulsion from Mesene in AD 151, Vologases IV inherited his
opponent’s former Gulf possessions, although this is pure speculation. If
this did take place, it would help explain a much disputed tradition preserved
by Tabari (838-923), al-Dinawari (c. 895), the author of the anonymous Nihāyatu’l-irab
fī abāri’l-furs wa’l-’arab (c. 1000-50),
and Ibn al-Atir (1160-1234), which attests to a formal Parthian
political presence in the area at the end of the Parthian period. The
information is contained in the accounts of Ardašir’s famous
campaign against eastern Arabia c. 240....” Potts (1990), pp.
228-230.
“Leslie
and Gardiner insist very strongly on identifying Āngŭ 安谷, EMC ?an kəwk
or ?an juawk, with Antioch in Syria (pp. 81–84). Apart from the obvious
weakness of the phonetic correspondence, which does not trouble them at all, Āngŭ
is said to be on the frontier of Ānxí (Parthia) and at least some
of the indications appear to correspond to a port on the Persian Gulf like that
which Gan Ying must have reached. The argument that the Chinese who wrote about
Āngŭ “never realized that Syria was no longer part of the
Seleucid Empire, which had been replaced by the Parthian Empire, itself in turn
replaced by the Persian Sassanid Empire” (p. 183) is hard to understand.”
Pulleyblank (1999), p. 76, n. 4.
The derivation of the name
‘Gerrha’:
The Chinese name, 安谷 Angu
(K. 146a and 1202a: ân-kuk; EMC an?- kəwk), was most probably
derived from some variation of ‘Hagar,’ Arabic for
‘fort’, from which the Greek name ‘Gerrha’ derived:
“Hagar
was a “kingdom” and Gerrha a “city”. At least, we have
coins mentioning a king of Hagar, though, of course, that does not preclude its
being a city. Unfortunately, we know very little about it, except that it was
somewhere in northern Arabia, and not necessarily on the coast. Gerrha is known
only from the Classical geographers who place it on the Arabian/Persian Gulf
coast, but it has never been successfully identified, despite numerous
attempts. Your identification of Hagar and Gerrha has been suggested by others,
and is possible but there is just not enough information about either two
confirm it or to rule it out, see D.T Potts “The Arabian Gulf in
Antiquity” (Oxford, 1990) vol. 2: 60-62 (Hagar) and 85-97 (Gerrha). Incidentally,
the “h” in Gerrha is simply a conventional transliteration of the
Greek form where the letter rho is always assumed to be aspirated. Greek, of
course, does not have a letter representing “h”, but Latin does and
in Pliny (Naturalis Historia VI.32.147) the name is spelt “Gerra”,
i.e. without an “h”. This somewhat weakens the case for Gerrha
simply being a metathesised form of Hagar. It should also be remembered that
Hagar in Ancient South Arabian is the normal word for “city” and
forms the initial part of many site names (Hagar bin Humeid, Hagar Kohlan,
etc.). We know that the South Arabians were very active in North East Arabia,
both because of the frankincense trade and because the Ancient North Arabian
language of the area was written in the South Arabian script (in contrast to
those of North West Arabia which developed there own scripts).” Michael
Macdonald, personal communication, 20/6/99.
“A recent attempt by W. W. Müller to deduce the Semitic origin of
the Greek name ‘Gerrha’ has important implications for the solution
to the problem of the site’s location. Müller postulates that the
ancient Hasaitic designation for ‘the city’ would have been *han-Hagar,
from which an Aramaicized ‘Hagarā’ could have developed. As
the use of Aramaic in this area is well-attested (see ch. 5 below), this
presents no difficulties. From the form ‘Hagarā’, then, the
Greek form ‘Gerrha’ can be derived. The application of the term ha—ar
to a walled city with towers and bastions was stressed by H. Von Wissmann in
his final, posthumously published work on Sabaean history. If a similar usage
obtained in north-eastern Arabia where, as we have seen, the South Arabian
alphabet was used in the indigenous Hasaitic inscriptions, then one immediately
thinks of Thaj as a likely candidate for the site of ancient Gerrha.
Pliny’s statement that Gerrha ‘measures five miles round and has
towers made of squared blocks of salt’ is, moreover, reminiscent of the
white limestone city wall at Thaj discussed above; nor are there any other
sites of the period in eastern Arabia which fit such a description. Finally, if
we remember the admittedly rough calculation of the distance between Gerrha and
Teredon which brought us to the region of al-Jubayl, it is interesting to note
that this is in fact Thaj’s traditional and indeed only outlet to the
sea. Thus, there exists at least a strong possibility that Thaj and al-Jubayl
are the sites of the inland town of Gerrha and its coastal port.” Potts
(1990), pp. 89-90.
“On the
coast, on the direct line between Hofuf and Bahrain, lay the village of Uqair,
and beside it the ruins of a large walled town. It had seemed obvious to many
modern theorists that Uqair must be Gerrha, and the identification seemed
clinched by the fact that, in the local dialect of Arabic, the letter q
is pronounce as g. Uqair is pronounced Ogair, which was close enough to
the Greek name to be convincing. Admittedly it was known that a walled city had
been built at Uqair in Islamic times, but this was believed to lie on the
offshore island where the present Uqair village stands. In any case, we knew of
other sites not so far away where Islamic cities lay beside or above cities of
Seleucid or earlier date.” Bibby (1970), pp. 318-319.
The dating of Gerra.
“The
figurines [found at Thaj] I could not date; we had found figurines in Bahrain
in many different levels, and none exactly like these. But it was not
necessary. The pottery we knew very well indeed with the first fragment of a
thin bowl, red painted and radially burnished inside, I was on familiar ground.
This was the pottery which we had found in the Greek town on Failaka, and in
our Fifth City on Bahrain. It belonged beyond a doubt to the third century B.C.
There were also numerous fragments of the square four-legged
“incense-burners” characteristic of this period. The matter was
clinched with the finding of eight fragments of glossy black varnished pottery,
pieces of small ring-based bowls. They were Attic ware, imports from Greece
itself. Some of them were even rouletted, decorated with a close pattern of
semi-circles made with a toothed wheel, a characteristic which proved their
Greek origin beyond a doubt.” Bibby (1970), pp. 322-323.
“The
immediate archaeological problem with Thaj was straightforward, and could be
answered by a single carefully placed sondage. Did the city of the time
of Alexander, which surface indications showed to exist, overlie a city or
several cities of earlier date?. . . .
There was no earlier
city at Thaj. Three metres down, we were below the foundations of the city
wall, in a pit that had been dug before the wall was built into the sterile
sand which at that time covered the site. Five metres down we came to the
bottom of the pit. And the pottery was identical from first to last. Thaj had
had but one period of occupation, and that had not lasted more than perhaps
four hundred years. We have carbon samples from the lowest and the uppermost
levels which may give us the span in time of the city. The ash layers in the
upper levels are indeed so thick that it is likely that Thaj died by fire and
the sword.
The city proved even
more imposing on examination than at first acquaintance. The city wall is
fifteen feet thick, faced with stone both out and in, and with towers at
regular intervals jutting out from the line of wall. On excavation the walls
would still stand seven feet high, and would be an imposing ancient monument.
It must have been even more imposing to the caravans from the Hadramaut two
thousand years ago which, after forty days in the desert, saw the crenellated
walls rising to their full height above the palms and gardens south of the
city, with the blue waters of the lake beyond.” Bibby (1970), pp.
367-369.
“In sum,
the pottery indicates that Periods I-III at Thaj date generally to the Seleucid
period. Despite the fact that a very badly worn cylinder seal attributed to the
Isin-Larsa period had been found on the surface of the site. . , nothing
suggests that the occupation of Thaj preceded the third or late fourth century
BC.” Potts (1990), p. 44.
“. . . .
A terminal date in the first century AD or even slightly later can thus be
suggested if, as appears likely, the rouletted wares at Thaj, obviously of
local manufacture, represent copies of imported Roman or Nabataean pottery from
the west. This date would be sustained, moreover, by the presence of Thaj-type
pottery, coins, and figurines in small quantities at ed-Dur, most of the
occupation of which dates to the first century AD.
A number of coins from
the surface of the site should also be mentioned. These include at least one
Elymaean bronze, two badly effaced Sasanian bronzes (possibly Šapur II),
and a denarius of Constantine the Great minted at Antioch-on-the-Orontes
in 347/8. The presence of these Sasanian and Roman coins at Thaj suggests that
the date for the end of the Thaj ceramic sequence indicated by the rouletted
sherds discussed above may be later than currently supposed, although there is
no way of knowing whether these coins reached the site during the last period
of occupation recorded in the 1983 excavations, or later still.” Potts
(1990), p. 203.
The wealth and importance of Gerrha
“In the
time of the Roman and Parthian empires there was a large port called Gerra on
the mainland somewhere opposite Bahrain. Its exact site is unknown, but was
extensive (Pliny mentions that it had a wall with towers, five miles in
circumference) and advantageously placed. Caravans from South Arabia, having
skirted the sands of the Empty Quarter, normally stopped at Gerra rather than
continue northward up the coast and through Kuwait; instead their cargoes
completed the journey to Parthian territory by sea. The Gerraeans, like their
opposite numbers, the Nabataeans, grew rich by means of their trans-shipment
facilities. They had also a valuable resource of their own; the pearls of the
Bahrain region were the second most famous in the Ancient World, outclassed
only by those of Ceylon.” Sitwell (1984), pp. 93-94.
“The
spectacular rise and development of the Nabataean kingdom to great wealth and
power between the first centuries B.C. and A.D. may be attributed in part to
the fact that it was situated on important trade routes between Arabia and
Syria. Along them were carried not only the spices and incense of southern
Arabia, but also goods which had been transported from Africa, India and very
possibly even from China. Heavily laden caravans converged on the great trade
emporium of Petra, with some of them coming from the related centers of
Meda’in Saleh and Teima in Arabia. Other caravans came from as far away
as Gerrha on the Persian Gulf.” Glueck (1959), pp. 195-196.
“At a much later date the same conditions of trade are noted by the
geographer Artemidorus who flourished around 100 B.C. As quoted by the later
geographer Strabo (died around 25 A.D.), Artemidorus describes the Sabaeans,
the people of Sabaea or Sheba, as having “aromatics in such abundance
that they use cinnamon and cassia and the others instead of sticks and
firewood... From their trafficking both the Sabaeans and the Gerrhaeans have
become the richest of all.” The town of Gerrha was the entrepot of the
incense trade on the Persian Gulf in the vicinity of Bahrain whence the goods
were transshipped to Iraq, but it was not a settlement of Arab camel breeders
as Petra was, at least to some degree. Strabo says that Gerrha was
“inhabited by Chaldaeans, exiles from Babylon.” As was the case in
Solomon’s time, the major parties in the trade did not include the people
who supplied the means of transport.
Since the profits from
the caravan trade were substantial and the pattern of trade favoring the
retention of profits at the termini of the trade routes was well established,
there is no reason to suppose that the diversion of those profits into the
desert for the benefit of the carriers of the trade, a development that started
with the rise of Petra and continued until the Islamic invasions of the seventh
century A.D., was accomplished without resistance from those parties which had
previously been in control. Once the dominance of the trade passed to the
desert dwellers, the attempts of Romans, Persians, and south Arabians to regain
control of it by military or diplomatic means are numerous enough to show that
the change in the trading pattern was worth fighting about.” Bulliet
(1975), p. 93.
“In the
time of the Roman and Parthian Empires there was a large port called Gerra on
the mainland somewhere opposite Bahrain. Its exact site is unknown, but was
extensive (Pliny mentions that it had a wall with towers, five miles in circumference)
and advantageously placed. Caravans from South Arabia, having skirted the sands
of the Empty Quarter, normally stopped at Gerra rather than continue northward
up the coast and through Kuwait; instead their cargoes completed the journey to
Parthian territory by sea. The Gerraeans, like their opposite numbers the
Nabataeans, grew rich by means of their trans-shipment facilities. They also
had a valuable resource of their own; the pearls of the Bahrain region were the
second most famous in the Ancient World, outclassed only by those of
Ceylon.” Sitwell (1984), pp. 93-94.
I. The Spread of Ideas
and Religions Along the Trade Routes
There was an incredible spread of
religious and other ideas along the newly expanded trade networks. It is clear
just from the number such reports that opening of pan-Eurasian networks caused
a rapid flow of ideas and religions from one distant region to another on scale
never seen before:
“Although
firm evidence is lacking, it is not unlikely that both Iranian and Jewish
merchants were active along the Silk Road from a very early time, perhaps 3,000
years ago or even more. Naturally their religious ideas would have accompanied
them on their travels and therefore would have become familiar to peoples these
merchants encountered along the way. There is evidence that Iranian soothsayers
were employed by the Western Chou dynasty of China prior to the eighth century BCE.1
So we can say that
in ancient times certain religious ideas may have spread geographically eastward,
in the sense that the possessors of those ideas physically went there:
this is not to say, however, that Iranian or Jewish religious systems
“grew” or won converts. The great missionary religions had not yet
entered the stage of world history.
In traditional societies
religions, like people, are generally considered as being attached to a
particular locality or region and, by extension, to their own local culture.
From an Inner Asian or Chinese point of view, whatever religion a foreign merchant
of Iranian or Israelite origin practiced was simply the home religion of the
Iranians or of the Israelites; one would no more think of embracing such a
religion oneself than of pretending to be from Iran or Palestine.
Still, as Turks, Chinese,
and other East Asian peoples came into contact with these merchants from the
West and became familiar with their ways of thinking, subtle influences must
have penetrated in both directions through everyday encounters and
conversation.”
1
Victor Mair, “Old Sinitic *Myag, Old Persian Magus, and
English ‘Magician,” Early China 15 (1990), pp. 27-47.
Foltz (1999),
p. 35 and n. 1.
“One of the most striking features of Rome’s eastern frontier is
the movement of people and ideas across it: Christianity was no exception, and
no single pattern of transit will explain it in regions which saw so many
travellers, traders and movements of men with their gods. The Christians in
Dura [Europos – on the upper Euphrates] with Greek names were only one of
many possible types. Further south, we can already find Christians with a
strong Jewish heritage who lived beyond the reach of Rome. During the second
and third centuries, groups of Baptists could be found in the district between
the mouths of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, where they lived under the
nominal control of the Parthians. They acknowledged Christian teachings among
severe beliefs which had the stamp of Jewish influence. Here, they had
presumably begun as a splinter group from Jewish settlers and we have come to
know only recently how they combined a respect for Jesus with a strong stamp of
Jewish practice and an honour for their original leader, the prophet Elchesai,
who had taught in Mesopotamia c. 100–110 A.D. Their sect, then was quite
old and traced back to a heretical Christian teacher, busy in this area at an
early date. It is a reminder that very varied sects and small groups could
multiply in the Mesopotamian area, just out of the range of Greek and Roman
historians: Christian groups, already, were not limited to the area of Roman
rule.
These Baptists’
district was frequented by traders and travellers who moved freely between the
cities of Roman Syria, the Persian Gulf and India. The new religion could
travel yet further eastwards and in Christian tradition there are two distinct
stories that it did. The area was the setting for the fictitious [sic]
“acts” of the Apostle Thomas, which were compiled in Syriac,
probably at Edessa, before c. 250. They told how Thomas, a carpenter, had seen
Christ in a vision and had been sold into the service of King Gundophar, the
Parthian ruler whom we know to have ruled at Taxila in the Punjab during the
mid-first century. The story was well-imagined. Like Thomas, goods and art
objects from Roman Alexandria and Syria were reaching the Indus River and its
upper reaches in the period of Gundophar’s reign. However, we do not know
if there is any truth in the legend of Thomas’s mission. Possibly some
settled groups of Christians did exist in the Punjab and encouraged this story
of an Apostle’s visit to explain their origin. If so, they are a sad loss
to history. In Taxila, during the first and second centuries, they would have
lived in a society of rich household patrons, some of whose houses adjoined a
large Buddhist shrine. Here we would have to imagine the two religions’
meeting, made without the intervening barrier of pagan gods.
The second story of an
Indian mission is largely true. Eusebius reports that an educated Christian,
Pantaenus, left Alexandria, evidently c. 180, and went as a missionary to
India, where he found Christians who already claimed to trace back to St.
Bartholomew. They owned a copy of Matthew’s Gospel in “the Hebrew
script” which the Apostle was supposed to have left with them. Contacts
between Alexandria and the southwestern coast of India make it easy to credit
this visit. Eusebius reports it as a “story,” but he seems to be
expressing his own surprise at the adventure, not his doubt at its source. The
Gospel “in Hebrew letters” need not disprove it: “Hebrew
letters” may refer to the Syriac script, and we cannot rule out an early
Syriac translation of the Gospels for use in the East.
If Christians availed
themselves of these wide horizons, they were not alone among the travellers on
Rome’s eastern frontier: soon afterwards, the Christian teacher Bardaisan
was able to give us the best ancient description of India’s Brahmins from
his vantage point at Edessa, in Syria. In a pupil’s memoire of his teaching,
he also alluded to Christians in “Bactria,” beyond the Hindu Kush
Mountains, though not specifically in southern India. His silence does not
refute the stories of Christians in that region: he was not giving a complete
list of churches. He does, however, cast light on Christianity in his own
Edessa, where it attracted something more remarkable: the patronage of a
king.” Fox (1986), pp. 277-278.
“But whatever may be our opinion of this tradition [of St. Thomas coming
to India in the 1st century CE], there is not
the slightest reason to doubt that there were Christians in India in the second
century of our era. The documentary evidence available for this are the
following notices which appear in the writings of Eusebius and Jerome, to the
effect that Pantænus, the head of the famous catechetial school at
Alexandria, was sent by Demetrius, Bishop of Alexandria, to India at the
request of some ‘ambassadors’ from there.
1. It is said that he (Pantænus) ‘displayed such zeal for the
divine word that he was appointed as a herald of the Gospel of Christ to the
nations of the East and was sent as far as India . . . It is reported that
among persons there who knew Christ, he found the Gospel according to St.
Matthew which had anticipated his own arrival. For Bartholomew, one of the
apostles, had preached to them and left them with the writing of Matthew in the
Hebrew language which they had preserved till that time.’ (Eusebius: Ecclesiastical
History, Bk. V, Ch. 10)
2. ‘Pantænus, a philosopher of the Stoic school, according to some
old Alexandrian custom, where from the time of Mark the evangelist the
ecclesiastics were always doctors, was of so great prudence and erudition both
in scripture and secular literature that on the request of the legates of the
nation, he was sent to India by Demetrius, Bishop of Alexandria, where he found
that Bartholomew, one of the twelve apostles, had preached the advent of the
Lord Jesus, according to the Gospel of Matthew, and on his return to
Alexandria, he brought this with him in Hebrew characters.’ (Jerome : Liber
de Viris Illustribus, Ch. XXXVI.)
3. ‘Pantænus, a philosopher of the Stoic school, was on account of
his great reputation for learning sent by Demetrius, Bishop of Alexandria, to
India to preach Christ to the Brahmans and philosophers there.’ (Jerome :
Epistola LXX ad Magnum oratorem urbis Romae.)
There is no reason to doubt that the country visited by the learned
Pantænus was India, because nowhere else do we find Brahmins. He laboured
there for only a short time, returned to Alexandria and resumed charge of the
school from Clement, who, in a well-known passage, speaks of Indian
Gymnosophists and ‘other barbarian philosophers’. ‘Of
these,’ he says, ‘there are two classes, some of them are called
Sarmanae and other Brahmins; and those of the Sarmanae, who are called Hylobii,
neither inhabit cities, nor have roofs over them, but are clothed in the bark
of trees, feed on nuts, and drink water in their hands . . . They know not
marriage or begetting of children.’ Clement is here clearly referring to
the wandering sadhus of India, and no doubt got all his information
about India from his guru Pantænus.
The next record we have
of the existence of a Church in India is that at the Council of Nicaea (A.D.
239) a prelate of the Indian Church was present and subscribed as
‘Metropolitan of Persia and of the Great India’. We then read of
the visit to India of two brothers, Frumentius and Edesius, thirty years later.
Frumentius obtained the good will of the king of the country, rose high in his
favour and helped him in his administration. Discovering among the subjects
certain who were Christians, he helped them to build churches and propagate the
Gospel. Returning to Alexandria and relating the whole story to Bishop
Athanasius, who had by then been elevated to that see, he entreated him to send
a Bishop to India. The prelate asked Frumentius to take upon himself the
Bishopric. He accepted and returned to India in the year 356 as Bishop of that
country. Rufinus, an Italian who had spent twenty-six years in a monastery in
Palestine, where he had become intimate with Jerome, returned to Italy in 397,
wrote an Ecclesiastical History and died in 412. It is he who gives us this
interesting narrative (Rufinus : Hist. Eccles. Lin. I, Cap.
9).” Paul (1952), pp. 18-19.
“One further factor may be mentioned as not irrelevant to this inquiry.
There is a Jewish colony settled in various places round the Periyar river and
in Quilon, the very places which claim Christian churches founded by St.
Thomas. According to their own traditions the came originally in A.D. 68 and
settled in Muziris, receiving a grant of privileges on copper plates just as
the Christians did in the fourth century. There are Christian copper-plate
grants associated with Quilon and generally thought to be of the ninth century
which are witnessed by a number of Jews, subscribing their names in Hebrew. We
cannot be certain of these traditional dates, but it looks as if Jewish
immigrants, perhaps driven from the West or Arabia by persecution, settled in Kēraḷa and became respected trading communities in the
first few centuries of our era.” Brown (1956), p. 62.
“A single
stone inscription from a synagogue in K’ai-feng along the lower reaches of
the Yellow River offers a tantalizing suggestion regarding the earliest Jewish
presence in East Asia. The inscription, which dates from 1663, reads:
“The religion started in T’ien-chu [lit.
‘India,’ but probably just meaning the West], and was first transmitted
to China during the Chou [the Chou dynasty, ca. 1100-221 BCE]. A tz’u (ancestral hall) was built in Ta-liang
(K’ai-feng). Through the Han, T’ang, Sung, Ming, and up till now,
it has undergone many vicissitudes.”45
. . . . Unfortunately, the K’ai-feng
inscription is uncorroborated by any other piece of evidence and may just
reflect the Chinese Jewish community’s boldest claim to antiquity in its
own origin myth. An earlier inscription from 1512 and a slightly later one from
1679 both date the Jews’ first arrival in China to the Han period (202 BCE–221 CE). Consistent with this dating, some Chinese Jews
told a Jesuit missionary in the early eighteenth century that according to
their own oral tradition, their ancestors had first come from Persia during the
reign of Ming-ti (58-75 CE).49 The founders of the K’ai-feng
community, meanwhile, appear to have arrived by sea no earlier than the ninth
century CE, separately and distinctly from the Jews who had
come overland into Chinese territory much earlier.50”
45
Quoted in Leslie, Survival of the Chinese Jews, p. 3.
49
Leslie, Survival, p. 4.
50
Rudolf Loewenthal, The Jews of Bukhara, (Central Asian Collectanea, no.
8). Washington, D.C., 1961, p. 6.
Foltz (1999),
pp. 34-35 and nn. 45, 49, 50.
“The Parthian Arsacid dynasty, which ruled Mesopotamia and Iran during
the first two centuries of the common era, did not consider religion a
particularly important political issue. As a result there is little mention of
religious sects in Parthian sources, and we can only guess at the spread of
Christian ideas in the East based on analysis of later materials. It would seem
that in the western part of the Parthian realm Christian communities grew among
various Jewish and other sects, local cults and varieties of Iranian religion.
The earliest reference
to Central Asian communities in a Christian source is the comment of Bardaisan
around 196 CE: “Nor do our sisters among the Gilanians and
Bactrians have any intercourse with strangers.” The apocryphal Acts of
Thomas [which also mention the coming to Taxila in the first half of the 1st
century CE of Thomas and Mary and Thomas’
“twin” – who is often interpreted as Jesus – thought by
some to have survived the crucifixion], written around the same time, mentions
the “land of the Kushans” (baith kaishan).4
In 224 a new
dynasty, the Sasanians, defeated the Parthians. By then Christians were fairly
numerous in the Iranian world: an early church history states that in 225 there
were twenty bishoprics throughout the Persian controlled lands.5
Following the Sasanian Emperor Shapur I’s victories over the Byzantines
in 256 and 260, Greek-speaking as well as Syriac-speaking Christian captives
were deported to Iran and thus added to the numbers of Christians there.”
4 See
Moffett, Christianity in Asia, pp. 51-53.
5
Alphonse Mingana. The Early Spread of Christianity in Central Asia and the
Far East: A New Document. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1925,
pp. 7-8.
Foltz (1999),
p. 65 and nn.
The following article indicates the
possibility of Christian influence in China as early as the 1st
century CE.
Christian Designs Found in Tomb Stones of Eastern
Han Dynasty
When studying a
batch of stone carvings of Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 A.D.) stored and
exhibited in the Museum of Xuzhou Han Stone Carvings, Jiangsu Province,
Christian theology professor Wang Weifan was greatly surprised by some stone
engravings demonstrating the Bible stories and designs of early Christian
times.
Further studies
showed that some of these engravings were made in 86 A.D., or the third year
under the reign of “Yuanhe” of Eastern Han Dynasty, 550 years
earlier than the world accepted time of Christianity's entrance into China.
The 74-year-old
professor, who is also a standing member of the China Christian Council, showed
reporter a pile of photos of Han stone carvings and bronze basins taken by him.
He also compared the designs on them with that of the Bible, composed of fish,
birds, and animals demonstrating how God created the earth.
Designs on
these ancient stones displayed the artistic style of early Christian times
found in Iraq and Middle East area while bearing the characteristics of China's
Eastern Han times.
The stone
carvings, being important funeral objects, are mainly found in four cities, and
Xuzhou is one of them. It is reported that by now more than 20 intact Han tombs
have been found, from which nearly 500 pieces of engraved stones were discovered.
It is globally
accepted that Christianity was first carried into China by a Syrian missionary
Alopen in 635 A.D. the ninth year under the reign of “Zhenguan” of the Tang
Dynasty (618-907 A.D.).
Some experts
once raised doubts that Christianity may have entered China in an early time as
the Eastern Han, but lack evidence. Nevertheless, professor Wang’s
discovery serves to strongly back up the theory and the earlier works of his
own.
By PD Online
Staff Member Li Heng. People’s Daily Online. Downloaded on 26 November
2003:
http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/
J. Climate and other Changes along the
Silk Routes.
The general wide-spread desiccation of
Eurasia in historical times is now well attested and universally accepted. It
is particularly noticeable in the Tarim Basin region, where it forced the
abandonment of many communities as glacial streams retreated back towards the
ranges, forcing significant changes to trade routes. See, for example, Almgren
(1962), pp. 93-108; Shi and Yao (1999), pp. 91-100; Bao et al. (2004).
The old Southern Silk
Route between Dunhuang and Charklik became almost impassable over the first few
centuries CE. Travellers were obliged to take the longer route
through the mountainous region to the south, which was controlled by rebellious
Qiang tribes, or to abandon the Southern Route altogether, by heading from
Dunhuang past Lop Nor via Shanshan to rejoin the Northern Route near Korla.
Many communities were
abandoned due to the drying up of water supplies and the inexorable advance of
sand. This process continues even today with the Chinese government and local
communities fighting a constant battle to keep roads open and help present
communities survive.
“East of
Hetian [Khotan] are some 13 rivers, which used to flow more than 40 kilometres
(25 miles) further into the Taklamakan Desert than they do today. Many of the
prosperous towns watered by them were abandoned to the sands between the third
and sixth centuries to become buried treasure troves.” Bonavia (1988), p.
191.
“This next stretch of highway is under threat from the desert and
frequently blocked. Fences of reed-matting form sand-breaks. Quemo comprises
one main street only – and no wonder, since for 145 days a year it is
blasted by sands blown by Force 5 winds. Until the road was completed in the
1960s it took a month’s journey through 800 kilometres (500 miles) of
desert to reach Korla.” Ibid., p. 192.
It is wise to remember, that not all the
changes in routes or settlement patterns were solely due to climactic changes,
they were sometimes hastened by human factors; as Sir Aurel Stein makes clear:
“According
to the observations during my explorations of 1900-01, and which I have
discussed at some length in my former Detailed Report, the Dandān-oilik
Oasis received its water from a canal fed by one or several of the streams now
irrigating the oases of Chīra, Gulakhma, and Domoko. The careful
examination which Professor Huntington has since made of this ground, and the
physical changes undergone by it, has fully confirmed this view. Now it is of
special importance to note that Dandān-oilik lies fifty‑six miles
farther north in the desert than Khādalik, and not less than sixty‑four
beyond Mazār-toghrak. Were shrinkage of the water‑supply to he
considered the only possible cause of abandonment, this chronological
coincidence in the case of localities dependent on the identical drainage
system, and yet so widely separated, would certainly be very curious.
That
such shrinkage of the available water‑supply has taken place in the Tarīm
Basin during historical times, and that it must be connected with a general
desiccation period affecting the whole of Central Asia and apparently most
regions of the continent, if not of the whole earth, is a conclusion which a
mass of steadily accumulating evidence is forcing upon the geographical
student. It is Professor Huntington’s special merit that he has brought
out the central fact of that shrinkage and has emphasized the importance of the
proofs which systematic archaeological investigation of ancient sites in the
desert and near the present oases is able to furnish. At the same time he has
looked towards the results of this investigation to support a theory of his own
which supposes that the general process of desiccation has been diversified
during the historical period known to us by a succession of minor though
important climatic changes partaking of a pulsatory nature. By a series of
ingenious observations Professor Huntington has endeavoured to show that the
climatic pulsations thus assumed, i.e. periods of increased dryness extending
over certain centuries followed in turn by periods of a reverse tendency toward
more abundant rainfall, have exercised a determining influence on history. He
believes them to be reflected with particular clearness in the history of
Central Asia, tend to increase the intensity of any climactic variations.
It
does not come within the scope of the present work to attempt a critical
analysis in general of this theory which the distinguished American geographer
has set forth, with great lucidity and captivating literary skill in his Pulse
of Asia. But since many of the specific arguments there advanced are
derived from observations and inferences concerning the ancient sites between
Khotan and Lop‑nōr which I explored in the course of my journeys, it
appears to me obviously desirable that I should indicate clearly in each case
what I think systematic archaeological research can safely establish as regards
the climatic changes assumed, and what lies beyond its power to prove. The
distinction is particularly needful, because in the absence of direct
historical information which could throw light on such changes in the Tārīm
Basin, Professor Huntington has been led to deduce their chronology mainly from
what antiquarian evidence he believed available, and in the reverse way to
reconstruct the history of economic and cultural development in this region
from the climatic pulsations determined on this basis.
To
turn now to the tract which extends along the southern edge of the Taklamakān
between Chīra and Keriya, it is certain that the water brought down at the
present time by its rivers would be quite insufficient to reach so distant a
site as Dandān‑oilik. Nor would it be adequate to irrigate, besides
the actual oases, the whole of the adjoining area which can be proved to have
been cultivated during the pre‑Muhammadan epoch. But a recognition of
this fact by no means justifies the assumption that, because desiccation has
rendered areas once cultivated incapable of reoccupation after long centuries,
their original abandonment must have been due to the same cause.
Where
man’s struggle with adverse conditions of nature is carried on by a
highly civilized community, such as archaeological exploration reveals to
us in these ancient oases of the Buddhist epoch, human factors introduce
elements of complexity which must warn the critical student to proceed warily,
and to look for definite historical or antiquarian evidence before drawing his
conclusions as to the circumstances and events which determined the desertion
of these settlements. Where cultivation is wholly dependent upon a careful
system of irrigation, and where the maintenance of the latter is possible only
by the organized co‑operation of an adequate population, as in these
oases adjacent to, or surrounded by, the most and of deserts, a variety of
causes apart from the want of water may lead to the gradual shrinkage or
complete abandonment of cultivation. Reduction of population through invasion or
pestilence; maladministration and want of security arising from prolonged
disturbance of political conditions; physical calamities, such as changes in
river courses with which a weakened administration would not adequately cope,
etc., might all individually or jointly produce the same result.
Thus
for Dandān‑oilik we have significant evidence in an official Chinese
document of the year A. D.768 found there, which has been fully discussed in my
former Detailed Report. This shows in most authentic form that the settlement,
finally abandoned soon after A. D. 790, as other dated records prove, had
already in A. D. 768 lost a part of its population which had retired to the
main oasis owing to the depredations of bandits. In view of this explicit
contemporary record there is every inducement for the historical student to
connect the final abandonment of this outlying oasis after A. D. 790 with the
great political. upheaval of the years immediately following, when Chinese
authority in Eastern Turkestan after long‑drawn struggles finally
succumbed to Tibetan invasion. We know from the devastations which accompanied‑Tibetan
predominance elsewhere at that period, that the disappearance of organized
Chinese control and protection must have resulted in prolonged political
troubles throughout the Tārīm Basin. Without an effectively
administered system of irrigation and an adequate population, cultivation in
that and region cannot successfully maintain its constant fight with the
desert, whatever the supply of water available in the rivers may be. Both
conditions were likely to suffer severely during those troubled times, and in
no part of the cultivated effect make itself felt so rapidly and completely as
in an isolated colony like Dandān-oilik.
It
is obvious that a cause which would suffice to explain complete abandonment in
the case of Dandān-oilik, might reasonably be held capable also of
accounting for the shrinkage which we must assume to have taken place about the
same time in the occupied area immediately to the north and east of the present
Domoko. But it will be well to remember the lesson which the story of the
Domoko dam. as above detailed, can teach us, and to realize that we can never
be sure of correctly gauging the cause or causes which have produced the change
in each particular locality, unless definite historical records come within our
reach. Neither silent ruins nor scientific conjecture can replace them, and
while reliable materials of that kind remain as scanty as now, we can scarcely
expect the old sites to give definite answers to all the questions which arise
about the physical past of this region.” Stein (1921), pp. 207-211.
K. The Identification of Jibin as
Kapisha-Gandhāra.
The kingdom of Jibin 罽賓 [Chi-pin]
= Gandhāra-Kapisha.
Ji 罽 – not in Karlgren;
EMC: kiajh
bin 賓 – K. 389a: *pi̯ĕn / pi̯ĕn; EMC: pjin.
There is a discussion in CICA p.
104, n. 203, on the various phonetic interpretations of the name, none of which
I find convincing. There are two main theories regarding the location of Jibin:
1. Several scholars maintain that
Jibin referred to (the Valley of) Kashmir. This was partly on linguistic
grounds – see, for example, Pulleyblank (1963), pp. 218-219, (1999), p.
75 and the discussion in Bailey (1985), pp. 44-46, and partly because Jibin was,
in later centuries, in a few Buddhist texts, used to refer to the Kashmir
Valley.
The Vale or Valley of
Kashmir was most unlikely to have been on the route used by the Chinese to
reach Kandahar and points west. In ancient times, the only easy access to it
was from the southwest – the Gandhāran plains – via the low
Baramula Pass, with its plentiful water and fodder. This did mean that the
ruler of Taxila (east of the Indus, near modern Rawalpindi), when strong
enough, frequently controlled Kashmir as well, and it was commonly used as a
summer residence for such rulers due to its pleasant climate and surrounds.
Travel was very
difficult from all other directions – the northwest, east and south. For
practical purposes, the Vale of Kashmir formed a cul-de-sac, with only one
major opening and thus was rarely used for through traffic, as the following
passage from the 16th century Tarikh-i-Rashidi, chap. XCIX,
makes plain:
“There are three principal highways into Kashmir. The one leading to
Khorásán [“a – country which at that time spread
eastward to beyond Herat and Ghazni, and southward to Mekrán.” See
Vol. I, p. *30] is such a difficult route, that it is impossible for beasts of
burden with loads to be driven along it ; so the inhabitants, who are
accustomed to such work, carry the loads upon their own shoulders for several
days, until they reach a spot where it is possible to load a horse. The road to
India offers the same difficulty. The road which leads to Tibet is easier than these
two, but during several days one finds nothing but poisonous herbs, which make
the transit inconvenient for travellers on horseback, since the horses
perish.” Elias (1895), p. 432.
During the Han and the Tang dynasties, at
least, the identification of Jibin with Kashmir is highly improbable. Most
people nowadays (including many scholars) think of “Kashmir” as
consisting of the mainly of Kashmir Valley itself or, at most, the Indian state
of Jammu and Kashmir including Ladakh to the east.
From the mid-19th
century the Maharaja’s power over the princely state of Jammu-Kashmir
extended at least as far as the Karakoram range to the north, but the disputed
boundary beyond that was never demarcated. He also controlled Ladakh and
Gilgit, until this latter was set up as a special agency by the British in 1889
for strategic reasons (which became part of Pakistan after Partition in 1947
along with the upper Indus Valley past Skardu). He controlled the territory
west past Gupis to the easy Shandur Pass (3,725 metres; 12,221 feet), which is
only about 20 kilometres from Mastuj.
Mastuj, on the Yarkhun
River, is the main centre in the upper reaches of the Chitral/Kunar valley,
from where there is relatively easy, year-round access to the region of Jalalabad
on the Kabul River. It also controls access to the strategically important
Baroghil Pass (3,798 metres; 12,460 feet) to the north. See, for example, the
foldout map of Kashmir in Younghusband and Molyneux (1909). It is only in this
very extended sense of ‘Kashmir’ that there could be any
possibility of Jibin standing for ‘Kashmir’ during the first few
centuries CE.
2. The second theory is based on the fact that
the route to Kandahar, as given in both the Hanshu and the Hou
Hanshu, reaches it after crossing through Xuandu (the ‘Hanging
Passages’ = Hunza/ Gilgit), and then passes through Jibin.
There is a route from
Gilgit to the Kashmir Valley itself which was in use until 1947, but, political
considerations aside, the shortest route from the Tarim Basin for someone
headed to the north Indian plains, remain the ones over the Kilik or Mintaka
Passes, and then through Hunza and Gilgit and on to the Chitral/Kunar Valley.
Further east one could cross the Baroghil Pass with pack animals during summer,
leading down to Mastuj and Chitral as described below.
The only alternative
routes for laden animals were much further east over the difficult Karakoram
Pass and then across Ladakh to Kashmir.
From Ladakh heading south,
there are a couple of difficult alternative routes over very high passes, both
converging, finally, on the unpredictable and dangerous Rohtang Pass
(3,980 metres or 13,058 ft) leading into the Kulu Valley and the northern
Indian plains. The Rohtang Pass is only open from June to September each year
and is notorious for its deadly “icy winds and sudden blizzards at any
time of the day even during the summer.” Chetwode (1972): p. 184 –
which see for graphic accounts of such disasters.
However,
the route through the Kullu Valley and Manali over the Rohtang Pass to Lahaul,
and then on to Ladakh and the Tarim Basin always retained a certain importance
in spite of its dangers and difficulties. It was not only a conduit for the
famous cottons and wools of the north Indian plains. There were important
silver mines (now exhausted) past Manikaran in the Parvati River Valley which
joins the Kullu Valley from the east, and also some of the finest quality charas or hashish was (and is) produced
in the region, forming a major export item to the Khotan and Yarkand well into
the early years of the 20th century.
Looking at the routes from the opposite
direction, Sir Aurel Stein records:
“After leaving behind Misgar, the northernmost hamlet of Hunza, the
natural difficulties of the route decrease. The valley widens as we approach
the watershed which separates the headwaters of the Hunza river from those of
the Oxus on the one side and the Tāghdumbāsh Pāmīr on the
other. Lord Curzon, in his exhaustive Memoir on the Pāmīrs, has duly
emphasized the important geographical fact that the water-parting in this part
of the Hindukush lies considerably to the north of the axial range and is also
far lower. This helps to account for the relative ease with which the Kilik and
Mintaka passes, giving final access to the Tāghdumbāsh Pāmīr,
can be crossed, even with laden animals, during the greater part of the
year.” Stein (1907), p. 21.
By far the easiest route, though, at least
during summer (it was closed by snow in the winter), went over the Baroghil
Pass to Mastuj and, from there, either east towards Gilgit, southwest down the
Chitral/Kunar Valley towards Jalalabad.
There is a viable but
more difficult route south from Chitral, (presently in use because of the
artificial border between Pakistan and Afghanistan), over the dangerous Lowari
Pass (3,118 metres or 10,230 ft), through Dir and Malakand to the region of
Peshawar.
“From
Sarhad starts the well-known route which leads southwards over the Barōghil
pass to the headwaters of the Mastūj river, to this day representing the
easiest line of access from the Upper Oxus to Chitrăl as well as to
Gilgit.” Stein (1907), p. 8.
“All
details recorded of it [the passage of Ko Hsien-chih’s troops in 747 CE] agree accurately with the route which lies over the Barōghil
saddle (12,460 feet above the sea [3,798 metres]) to the sources of the Mastūj
river, and then, crossing south-eastwards the far higher Darkōt Pass
(15,200 feet [4,633 metres]), descends along the Yasīn river to its main
junction with the main river of Gilgit. Three days are by no means too large an
allowance of time for a military force accompanied by baggage animals to effect
the march from the Oxus to the summit of the Darkōt Pass, considering that
the ascent to the latter lies partly over the moraines and ice of a great
glacier. The Darkōt Pass corresponds exactly in position to the
‘Mount T’an-chü’ of the Annals and possibly preserves
the modern form of the name which the Chinese transcription, with its usual
phonetic imperfection, has endeavoured to reproduce. The steep southern face of
the pass, where the track descends close on 6,000 feet [1,829 metres] between
the summit and the hamlet of Darkōt, over a distance of five or six miles
[8 to 9.7 km], manifestly represents ‘the precipices for over forty li in
a straight line’ which dismayed the Chinese soldiers on looking down from
the heights of Mount T’an-chü.
From the foot of the
pass at Darkōt a march of about twenty-five miles [40 km] brings us to the
village of Yasīn, the political centre of the valley. . . . ” Stein
(1907), pp. 9-10.
As mentioned, from Chitral one could
travel either through Swat to the region of Peshawar in Gandhāra, or via
Jalalabad and from there southwest to Kandahar (this latter being the easiest
and most direct route to Kandahar). To travel to Kandahar via the Kashmir
Valley would entail making a very long and unnecessary detour.
In addition, the Hou
Hanshu’s discussion of Gaofu (which most authorities agree referred
to the region of modern Kabul, known later as Kabulistan), it is stated that
Jibin, at times, controlled it – see Section 4 of this text. That alone
would seem to eliminate the Kashmir Valley as a possible location.
Any power that
controlled the region of Jalalabad in the Kabul River Valley would normally
have included the key strategic fortifications at Kapisha near present Begram
to the north and, often, Kabul, and usually Peshawar and Pushkalāvatī
or Chārsaddā (the ancient capital – some 18 miles or 29 km
northeast of Peshawar), plus some of the Gandhāran plains to the east and
northeast.
“. . .
can only be Nagarahāra near Jalalabad, the frontier town towards India,
which appears in Ptolemy as ‘Nagara, also called Dionysopolis’.4
Very few places east of the Hindu Kush have a Greek name, so the town must have
been important; the form of the name Dionysopolis shows that a Greek military
colony had been planted there . . , one of the usual methods of hellenising an
existing Oriental town . . ; whether, like Susa, the place had become, or ever
did become, a Greek polis cannot be said. The settlers were devoted in
some especial way to the worship of Dionysus; hence the panther, probably the
city type.
4 VII,
I, 42; Foucher, Afghanistan p. 279. Ptolemy assigns it to Gandhāra,
but it was the frontier town and may have been governed from either capital at
different times.”
Tarn (1984), p.
159 and n. 4.
“But, unlike Taxila, Pushkalāvatī became a Greek polis (doubtless
somewhat of the type of Susa, p. 27), as is shown by the Fortune of the city on
kings’ coins; the solitary coin of the city itself which exists to prove
that it was once for a time completely independent… shows, beside
Siva’s bull, the Fortune of the ‘city of lotuses’ with her
mural crown, holding in her hand the lotus of Lakshmī. Evidently Pushkalāvatī,
when a Greek polis, was no less proud of her alien deities than was
Ephesus of her alien Artemis, and Siva’s bull is a parallel to
Artemis’ bee on the coins of the Ionian city. Pushkalāvatī
stood at what was probably then the junction of the Swat and Kabul rivers, and
as it and not Purushapura (Peshawur) became the Greek capital, the regular
Greek line of communication westward probably did not run through the Khyber
pass but by the route which Alexander had followed more to the northward; it
seems unlikely that the Khyber was in regular use until the Kushans made
Peshawur their capital.” Tarn (1984), p. 136.
“The
Khaibar route is a late one in the route-system of the frontier regions. With
the emergence of Kabul as an important town in the eighth century this route
came into prominence and started functioning most frequently from the sixteenth
century onwards. Hephaestion’s route went along the north bank of the
Kabul river and passed through the Michni fort and Hotimardān, where a
common route to Hund [a major ancient crossing of the Indus] proceeded.
According to Aurel Stein, the route of Hephaestion bifurcated from that of
Alexander somewhat near the eastern side of the Kunar river and far to the
north of Kama. It proceeded in the southeasterly direction through Bohai, Dāg,
Gandāb, Doābā, Michni Pass, Utmanzai, Chārsaddā and
finally to Hund via Hotimardān. Chārsaddā or Puṣkalāvatī
was the ancient capital of Gandhārā and was 18 miles [29 km]
northeast of Peshawar. Aurel Stein, On
Alexander’s Track to the Indus (London, 1929), p. 124 ; Olaf Caroe, Pathans, 550 BC-AD 1957 (London, 1958),
p. 48.” From: Verma (1978), p. 53, n. 152.
“We are
told by Alexander’s historians (M’Crindle MDCCCDVI) that while the
main body of his troop moved along the most direct route to Taxila, Alexander
decided to move along a northern route with the intention of subduing certain
tribes in that region. Major details about this route are available in
Holdich’s The Gates of India (189:96ff;
also see Smith 1904). Briefly, from Kabul, Alexander went along the Kabul river
on to the valley of Kunar (Choaspes)
which ‘is a link in the oldest and probably the best trodden route from
Kabul to the Punjab, and it has no part with the Khaibar. It links together
these northern valleys of Laaghman, Kunar and Lundai (i.e., the Panjkora and
Swat united) by a road north of Kabul, finally passing southwards into the
plains chequered by the river network above Peshawar.’ After crossing the
Panjkora (Gourajos), Alexander
subdued Massaga which,
M’Crindle argues, seconding Rennell, was the same as the Mashanagar
mentioned in Babur’s memoirs, situated on the Swat river, two marches
from Bajaur. His next objective were the cities of Ora and Bazira. Going
towards the Indus, Alexander received the submission of Peukelaotis, the capital of the then Peshawar region ie., Charsada.
From Charsada, Taxila was reached. After leaving behind the dominions of Porus,
around the Jhelum, he went down the river, fighting tribes along the way to
reach the confluence of the rivers of the Punjab with the Indus. His campaign
in the Sind region is dealt with very vaguely. It is sufficient to mention that
the march followed mainly the line of the river towards the sea and towards
Gedrosia.” Lahiri (1992), pp. 379-380.
It was only natural for a state such as
the Kushan (and later the British) Empire to wish to control the trade and
possible invasion routes to the northeast, and so would extend their power up
the Kunar/Chitral valley and across to the easily defended gorges of Yasin,
Gilgit and Hunza, thus controlling trade while, at the same time, preventing
surprise attacks from the north.
Shughnān was famous
for its good climate, water and wine. It was also the source of the widely
celebrated “Balas rubies” (actually spinel, not true rubies) of the
ancient world. Although, apparently no longer mined today, they were being
mined at least until the 19th century:
“I have failed
to find out how old the balas ruby is. The earliest I have met with are those
on the Bimarān casket, which was found with coins of Azes I and is
probably no earlier than c. 30 B.C.; some ruby beads from Taxila
are also not earlier than Azes, ASI 1915–16 p. 5. For Roman times
see Warmington, p. 249, who tells me he has not met with the balas ruby in
Hellenistic or Greek times. Yet it is hard to believe that the mine was first
opened by the Yueh-chi.” Tarn (1984), p. 103, n. 4.
“The
ruler of Shignan claims the title of Shah. The present Shah, Eusuf Ali, rules
over both Shighnan and Roshan. . . .
The country of Shignan and Roshan is sometimes called Zujan (two-lived),
its climate and water being so good that a man entering it is said to have come
into the possession of two lives. Bar Panja, the capital of Shignan, containing
about 1500 houses, stands on the left bank, and Wamur, the capital of Roshan,
on the right bank of the Oxus ; but the greater portion of both countries is on
the right [i.e. the eastern] bank. . . .
Much wine is made and drunk in the country. It is a red sweet liquor
produced from the cherry. There are now about 4700 houses or families in
Shighnan and Roshan together, but the population is said to have been much
greater in former times. Shighnan and Roshan used to receive from the Chinese,
during their occupation of Eastern Turkistan, a yearly payment similar to that
made to Sirikol, Kunjut, and Wakhan, for the protection of the frontier and the
trade routes. The ruby mines of Gharan are now worked under the orders of Sher
Ali, the Amir of Kabul. It was said that one large ruby the size of a
pigeon’s egg, as well as some smaller ones, were found lately and sent to
the Amir. The working of these mines appears to be attended with considerable
risk and great hardship.” Gordon (1876), pp. 139-141.
The region was also rich in metals which
may have been mined in Kushan times, and would have greatly increased its
importance:
“Badakshan
to-day produces some copper and iron, and may always have done so; but Bactria
in Greek times was seemingly poor in precious metals. In Arab times there were
rich mines of silver at Anderab and also mines in Wakhan, but it seems
improbable that they were worked or much worked in the Greek period, for there
are signs that Euthydemus was short of silver; many of his tetradrachms were
struck on old coins already in circulation, and he attempted at the end of his
life to import nickel from China. East of the Hindu Kush, however, the silver
mines on the Panjshir river, which were to supply the mint at
Alexandria–Kapisha, were doubtless working to some extent – one of
the things which made that city such a desirable acquisition.” Tarn
(1984), pp. 103-104.
It is possible that Shuangmi, at times,
may have controlled the region of the upper Kokcha river in Badakhshān
containing the important ancient lapis lazuli mines, which were usually
controlled by whoever was in power in Badakhshān. Certainly, in c.
658 CE the Chinese government established a district of
Shuangmi (employing exactly the same characters as in the Hou Hanshu)
centred in the town of Julan or Kuran, which is at the head of the Kokcha
River, near the lapis lazuli mines. See Chavannes (1900), pp. 71 n., 159, 159
n. 2, and 278. This is presumably also the place named Qulangna [Ch’ü-lang-na],
which Xuanzang visited on his way back to China in 644 CE. See Watters (1904-05), II, pp. 278-279; Beal (1884), II, p. 292, and
note 13.3 above.
It is often stated that
the mines in Badhakshan were the only source of lapis lazuli in the ancient
world. While it is true that they were the major source – particularly
for Mesopotamia and Egypt, other sources are known which have possibly been
utilised since ancient times. For example, one such source is near the town of Ghiamda
(modern Gyimda), about 200 km as the crow flies northeast of Lhasa:
“The
lapis lazuli, stag’s horn, and rhubarb, are also materials of a great
commercial intercourse with Lha-Ssa and the neighbouring provinces. They affirm
here, that it is the mountains about Ghiamda that the best rhubarb
grows.” Huc (undated), p. 98.
The Da Yuezhi also conquered the fertile
Swat Valley, which not only provided the main route south to the Gandhāran
plains but was an ancient source of emeralds. Questions were answered recently
as to whether emeralds were mined here in ancient times when an emerald from
this region has been recently proven to be the gem in a Gallo-Roman earring
– see Giuliani et al (2000), pp. 631-633.
Whoever was in power in
the Kapisha/Begram area would quite possibly have been exploiting the rich
deposits of emeralds just to the north of Kapisha/Begram, in the lower Panjshir
Valley – see Giuliani et al (2000), pp. 631–633.
These emeralds, along
with lapis lazuli from Badakshan, formed an important source of income for the
famous guerrilla leader, Ahmad Shah Massoud (the ‘Lion of
Panjshir’), in his campaigns against the Soviets during the 1980s. See:
Kremmer (2002), pp. 24-25. It is likely they were of similar importance in
antiquity.
It seems almost certain
that this is the route through Jibin that the Hou Hanshu and the Weilue
refer to, especially as we know this whole section of the route was under
Kushan control after they conquered it during 1st century CE.
The Hanshu says that Jibin:
“...is
flat and the climate is temperate. There is lucerne, with a variety of
vegetation and rare trees. . . . [The inhabitants] grow the five field crops,
grapes and various sorts of fruit, and they manure their orchards and arable
land. The land is low and damp, producing rice, and fresh vegetables are eaten
in winter. . . . The [state] produces humped cattle, water-buffalo, elephant,
large dogs, monkeys, peacocks....” CICA, pp. 105-106.
It is difficult to imagine anywhere other
than Gandhāra that would fit the information given above. However, the
extent of the territory it included or controlled undoubtedly varied from time
to time.
“From the
climate, the geographical features, and the produce, the central area in Han
times must have been in Gandhāra, including Taxila. Kaspeiria and
Paropamisadae were possibly subject to Jibin, but cannot be regarded as part of
the metropolitan territory of Jibin.
. . . . Since the metropolitan territory of
Jibin lay in the middle and lower reaches of the River Kabul, “Ji-bin [kiat-pien]”
was very likely a transcription of “Kophen”, an ancient name for
the River Kabul.” Yu (1998), p. 149.
There are many indications that the
territory along the Kabul River Valley through Jalalabad to Kapisha (modern
Begram) often formed a political unit with the Gandhāran plains. The Hanshu
(CICA, p. 103), mentions that Nandou (the Chitral/Kunar Valley) was also
subject to Jibin at that time.
“Chitral,
unlike Gilgit, is not blocked for eight months in the year by Nature. If there
were no such things as states, frontiers, and feuds, Chitral could be reached
with ease from Peshawar any day in the year. It could be reached via
Jallalabad. For, at Jallalabad, the Kabul River is joined by the Kunar River;
and Chitral is simply another name for the upper Kunar valley. Unseal the
sealed frontier that cuts this valley in two like a travel-proof bulk-head, and
that grim annual toll of deaths on the Lowari Pass could be remitted.”
Toynbee (1961), p. 143.
The History of the Northern Wei
provides valuable additional information on Jibin; stating that it was to the
southwest of Bolu (Bolor or Gilgit) and that it was 800 li west to east
and 300 li north to south. This description cannot possibly be applied
to Kashmir but it fits very well with the territory stretching along the Kabul
River valley from Kapisha (modern Begram – north of Kabul) through
Peshawar and across the Gandhāran plains to ancient Taxila:
“The
History of the Northern Wei [covering the period 386-534 AD] mentions an
embassy from Jibin in the 1st Zhengping
year of Taiwu Di (451 AD). The notice on the Peoples of the West inserted in
this history reproduces that of the Han, but adds a few precise details. The
capital of Jibin is SW of Bolu, 14,200 li from the capital of the Beiwei
(Northern Wei); the country is surrounded by four chains of mountains. It is
800 li [333 km] in length from west to east, 300 [125 km] from north to
south.” Translated from the French version by: Lévi and Chavannes
(1895), p. 374. [Note
that Lévi and Chavannes put the embassy in 452 AD, but this is a
mistake. The 1st Zhengping year
of Nanan Wang was 452/3, and he only reigned briefly during 452. Also note that
I have converted the li here according to the value of the Han li.
It may not have had exactly this value during the period of the Northern Wei,
but this does not affect the main thrust of my argument.]
The Chinese pilgrim Wu Kong who, after
travelling through Swat to the Indus River, entered Gandhāra in 753 CE helps us make sense of the confusion between the alternative proposed
locations of Jibin in Kapisha and in Gandhāra. The conditions he reports
were probably typical of the political situation of Jibin for many centuries,
although the eastern and western portions of the country (i.e. Gandhāra
and the upper Kabul River Valley), may have been separately governed at times:
“On the
21st day of the second month of the 12th Guisi year (753)[15th
March, 753], he [Wu Kong] arrived at the kingdom of Qiantuoluo (乾陀罗) ;
the Sanskrit pronunciation is correctly Gandhâra (健駄邏) [Jiantuoluo];
this is the eastern capital of Jibin (罽賓).
The king lives in winter
in this place; in summer, he lives in Jibin; he seeks out the warmth or
coolness to promote his health.” Translated from Lévi and
Chavannes (1895), p. 349.
For three excellent and detailed studies
on the location of Jibin, see Lévi and Chavannes’ essay (pp.
371-384) at the end of their article, “L’itineraire d’Ou-k’ong
(751-790).” JA (1895) Sept.-Oct.; Petech’s essay at the end
of his article, “Northern India according to the Shu-ching-shu”
(1950), pp. 63-80; and Yu (1998), Chapter 8, “The State of Jibin”,
pp. 147-166.
Also worth checking are:
Stein (1900): Vol. II, Chap. II, especially, pp. 351-362; Daffinà
(1982), pp. 317-318; Molè (1970), p. 97, n. 105; Rapson, ed., (1922), p.
501; Keay (1977), pp. 130, 146, 222, 224; Toynbee (1961), pp. 1, 48, 51-52 130,
125-126; and Pugachenkova, et al., (1994), p. 356.
Assuming the order of
the conquests of Kujula Kadphises in the text is chronological, it is probable
that Jibin came under Kushan rule not long after he conquered Puda (Parthuaia)
in 55 CE – see notes TWR 13.10 and 13.13
above.
“Qiujiuque
[Kujula Kadphises] invaded Anxi with the result that he took the country of
Gaofu, which shows he took Paropamisadae from the Gondophares family. He then
destroyed Jibin, of course, in order to put an end to the rule of the family in
Gandhāra and Taxila. As mentioned above, the last year of Gondophares was
at latest A.D. 45 and it is generally believed that the family of Gondophares
had also at least one ruler, Pocores, and their reign in the valley of the
Kabul River ended in A.D. 60-65. After that, Jibin was subject to
Guishuang.” Yu (1999), p. 160.
It is known that the region was still under Indo-Parthian rule until at least
44 CE when Apollonius of Tyana visited Taxila –
see the account in the translation by Priaulox of Philostratus’ Apollonius
of Tyana in Majumdar (1981), pp. 386-393, and the convincing discussion of
its authenticity (at least in regard to Taxila), in Woodcock (1966), p. 130.
However, for a recent critique of Apollonius of Tyana’s travels in the
East, see Jones (2002), pp. 185-199.
I believe there is now
overwhelming evidence for the second theory: Jibin, at the time of the Later
Han, probably included Gandhāra, particularly the regions of Peshawar and
the Kabul River valley through to Jalalabad, and then along the Kabul River
Valley to the junction with the Panjshir River, then northwest to the
strategically-placed fortress at Kapisha-Kanish, near modern Begram. Tarn
remarks on what he considers “Gandhāra” included:
“Gandhāra,1 the country between the Kunar river and the
Indus, comprising the modern Bajaur, Swat, Buner, the Yusufzai country, and the
country south of the Kabul river about Peshawur, was to become one of the
strongholds of Greek Power; it has been called a kind of new Hellas.”
1 In
the Jātakas Gandhāra includes Taxila; but in this book I use
the term in its strict sense. On Gandhāra see Foucher, Gandhāra;
R. Grousset, Sur les traces de Bouddha, 1929, chap. VI.”
Tarn (1984), p.
135 and n. 1.
L. The Introduction of Silk Cultivation
to Khotan in the 1st Century CE.
The legend of the introduction of silk to
Khotan by a Chinese princess is given in some detail in Xuanzang. Aurel Stein
gives a good summary of this legend according to Xuanzang:
“In old
times the country knew nothing of either mulberry trees or silkworms. Hearing
that China possessed them, the king of Khotan sent an envoy to procure them ;
but at that time the ruler of China was determined not to let others share
their possession, and he had strictly prohibited seeds of the mulberry tree or
silkworms’ eggs being carried outside his frontiers. The king of Khotan
then with due submission prayed for the hand of a Chinese princess. When this
request had been acceded to, he dispatched an envoy to escort the princess from
China, taking care to let the future queen know through him that, in order to
assure to herself fine silk robes when in Khotan, she had better bring some
mulberry seeds and silkworms with her.
The princess thus
advised secretly procured mulberry seeds and silkworms’ eggs, and by
concealing them in the lining of her headdress, which the chief of the frontier
guards did not dare to examine, managed to remove them safely to Khotan. On her
first arrival and before her solemn entry into the royal palace, she stopped at
the site where subsequently the Lu-shê convent was built, and there she
left the silkworms and the mulberry seeds. From the latter grew up the first
mulberry trees, with the leaves of which the silkworms were fed when their time
had come. Then the queen issued an edict engraved on stone, prohibiting the
working up of the cocoons until the moths of the silkworms had escaped. Then
she founded this Sanghārāma on the spot where the first silkworms
were bred; and there are about here many old mulberry tree trunks which they
say are the remains of the trees first planted. From old time till now this
kingdom has possessed silkworms which nobody is allowed to kill, with a view to
take away the silk stealthily. Those who do so are not allowed to rear the
worms for a succession of years.
That the legend here
related about the origin of one of Khotan’s most important industries
enjoyed widespread popularity is proved by the painted panel (D. iv. 5)
discovered by me in one of the Dandān-Uliq shrines, which presents us, as
my detailed analysis will show, with a spirited picture of the Chinese princess
in the act of offering protection to a basketful of unpierced cocoons. An
attendant pointing to the princess’s headdress recalls her beneficent
smuggling by which Khotan was supposed to have obtained its first silkworms,
while another attendant engaged at a loom or silk-weaving implement symbolizes
the industry which the princess’s initiative had founded. A divine figure
seated in the background may represent the genius presiding over the
silkworms.” Stein (1907) I, pp. 229-230. See also: Stein (1921), pp.
1278-1279; Watters (1904-1905), pp. 287, 302
The story of the Chinese princess bringing
silk to Khotan is retold in the Li yul luṅ-bstan-pa
or Prophecy of the Li Country – a Buddhist history that contains a
list of the Buddhist kings of Khotan apparently in chronological order. This
book has been found to be surprisingly accurate in the listing of Buddhist
kings wherever it has been possible to check it against Chinese sources.
However, it must be noted that the list of queens later in the document is
completely out of order. See: “Notes on the Dating of Khotanese
History” by Hill (1988); also TWR note 4.1.
The legend is set in the reign of
King Vijaya Jaya, who is said to have married the Chinese princess who first brought
silkworms to Khotan. King Vijaya Dharma was the youngest of three sons of
Vijaya Jaya and appears to be identical with a “high official”
named Dumo in the Hou Hanshu, and who is mentioned later on in the text
as reigning in 60 CE. (For more details on this identification, see TWR
note 20.17.)
The name of this “high
official,” 都末 – Dumo – is presumably an attempt to
transcribe Dharma, the king’s name in the legend:
Du – K.
45e’: *to / tuo; EMC: to / tuo.
mo – K. 277a: *mwât / muât; EMC: mat.
Furthermore, King Vijaya Jaya is recorded
as being four generations before King Vijaya Kīrti, who is said to, along
with the king of Gu-zan or Kucha assisted Kanika (= Kanishka) in his conquest
of So-ked (= Saketa).
Now, we know that this
conquest apparently took place just prior to, or during the first year, of
Kanishka’s era, which Harry Falk (2001) has recently identified as 127 CE.
Although
the evidence is not totally beyond question, there are now, I believe,
sufficient grounds for asserting that that silk technology arrived in Khotan
sometime in the first half of the 1st century CE.
This is supported by F.
W. Thomas in his translation of “The Annals of the Li Country,” in Tibetan
Literary Texts and Documents Concerning Chinese Turkestan (1935) on page
110, note 9, where he says: “The introduction of silk-culture into Khotan
probably took place early, perhaps about the beginning of the Christian
era.” For further information see: Emmerick (1967), pp. 33-47 and Thomas
(1935), pp. 110-119.
M. The Canals and
Roads from the Red Sea to the Nile.
I have already discussed in some detail
the significance of the two canals – the Red Sea to the Nile, and the
Butic – which, together, connected Alexandria and the other delta cities
with the Red Sea. See note 11.8. Here, I propose to look at the various
accounts dealing with the long history of the Red Sea to the Nile canal.
“Darius
(520 B.C.) continued the work of Necho, rendering navigable the channel of the
Heroopolite Gulf, which had become blocked. Up to this time there appears to
have been no connexion between the waters of the Red Sea and those of the
Bubastis-Heroopolis canal; vessels coming from the Mediterranean ascended the
Pelusaic arm of the Nile to Bubastis and then sailed along the canal to
Heroopolis, where their merchandise had to be transferred to the Red Sea ships.
Ptolemy Philadelphus (285 B.C.) connected the canal with the waters of the sea,
and at the spot where the junction was effected he built the town of Arsinoe.
The dwindling of the Pelusaic branch of the Nile rendered this means of
communication impossible by the time of Cleopatra (31 B.C.). Trajan (A.D. 98)
is said to have repaired the canal, and, as the Pelusaic branch was no longer
available for navigation, to have built a new canal between Bubastis and
Babylon (Old Cairo), this new canal being known traditionally as Amnis
Trajanaus or Amnis Augustus. According to H. R. Hall, however, it is very
doubtful if any work of this kind, beyond repairs, was undertaken in the time
of the Romans; and it is more probable that the new canal was the work of Amr
(the Arab conqueror of Egypt in the 7th century). The canal was
certainly in use in the early years of the Moslem rule in Egypt; it is said to
have been closed c. A.D. 770 by order of Abu Jafar (Mansur), the second
Abbasid caliph and founder of Bagdad, who wished to prevent supplies reaching
his enemies in Arabia by this means.” Encyclopædia Britannica
(1911). Downloaded from: http://76. 1911encyclopedia.org/S/SU/SUEZ.htm
on 11 Nov. 2003.
“In Egypt both land and water communications were looked after; the old
canal from Memphis to the lake of Ismailia was brought back into commission by
dint of so much labour that it subsequently bore Trajan’s name; as for
the roads, milestones recording Trajan’s work have been found as far
south as Nubia.” Garzetti (1976), p. 336.
“Now, the surveys recently made by Lieutenant-colonel Ardagh, Major
Spaight, and Lieutenant Burton, of the Royal Engineers, have rendered it
certain that the Wady Tûmilât was at some very distant time
traversed by a branch of the Nile which discharged its waters into the Red Sea
– the majority of geographers being now of the opinion that the head of
the Gulf of Suez formerly extended as far northward as the modern town of
Ismaïlia. Whether that branch of the Nile was ever navigable, we know not;
but we do know that it was already canalized in the reign of Seti I, second
Pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty, and father of Rameses II.
This ancient canal
started, like the present Sweetwater Canal, from the neighbourhood of Bubastis,
the modern Zagazig; threaded the Wady Tûmilât; and emptied itself
into that basin which is now known as Lake Timsah. When Mr. De Lesseps laid down
the line of the Sweetwater Canal, he, in fact, followed the course of the old
canal of the Pharaohs, the bed of which is still traceable. When I last saw it,
several blocks of masonry of the old embankment were yet in situ, among
the reeds and weeds by which that ancient water-way is now choked.”
Edwards (1891), p. 280.
“Psammetichus
left a son called Necos, who succeeded him upon the throne. This prince was the
first to attempt the construction of the canal to the Red Sea – a work
completed afterwards by Darius the Persian – the length of which is four
days’ journey, and the width is such as to admit of two triremes being
rowed along it abreast. The water is derived from the Nile, which the canal
leaves a little above the city of Bubastis,293 near Patumus, the
Arabian town,294 being continued thence until it joins the Red Sea.
At first it is carried along the Arabian side of the Egyptian plain, a far as
the chain of hills opposite Memphis, whereby the plain is bounded, and in which
lie the great stone quarries; here it skirts the base of the hills running in a
direction from west to east; after which it turns, and enters a narrow pass,
trending southwards from this point, until it enters the Arabian Gulf. From the
northern sea to that which is called the southern or Erythraean, the shortest
and quickest passage, which is from Mount Casius, the boundary between Egypt
and Syria, to the Gulf of Arabia, is a distance of exactly one thousand
furlongs. But the way by the canal is very much longer, on account of the
crookedness of its course. A hundred and twenty thousand of the Egyptians,
employed upon the work in the reign of Necos, lost their lives in making the
excavation. He at length desisted from his undertakings in consequence of an
oracle which warned him ‘that he was labouring for the barbarian’.295
The Egyptians call by the name of barbarian all such as speak a language
different from their own.”
293
The commencement of the Red Sea canal was in different places at various
periods. In the time of Herodotus it left the Pelusiac branch a little above
Bubastis.
294
Patumus was not near the Red Sea, but at the commencement of the canal, and was
the Pithom mentioned in Exod. 1, 11.
295
This was owing to the increasing power of the Asiatic nations.
Herodotus (1996
edition), pp. 185, 219.
“Now the
Nile, when it overflows, floods not only the Delta, but also the tracts of
country on both sides of the stream which are thought to belong to Libya and
Arabia, in some places reaching to the extent of two days’ journey from
its banks, in some even exceeding the distance, but in others falling short of
it.” Herodotus (5th cent. BCE): 124
(II.19).
“When the
Nile overflows, the country is converted into a sea, and nothing appears but
the cities, which look like islands in the Aegean.205 At this season
boats no longer keep the course of the river, but sail right across the plain.
On the voyage from Naucratis to Memphis at this season, you pass close to the
pyramids, whereas the usual course is by the apex of the Delta, and the city of
Cercasorus. You can sail also from the maritime town of Canobus across the flat
to Naucratis, passing by the cities of Anthylla and Archandropolis.”
Note
205 by George Rawlinson; ibid., on p. 212, says: “This still
happens in those years when the inundation is very high.”
Herodotus
(II.97), (1996), p. 155.
“As early
as the Middle Kingdom, a canal had been dug from Phacussa on the Pelusiac
branch of the Nile to irrigate the fertile wadi Tumilat to the east, where later
the Hebrews were to settle in Goshen. Necho vainly attempted to extend it
through the Bitter Lakes to the Gulf of Suez as one phase of that policy of
exploration which resulted in the Phoenician circumnavigation of Africa. After
his passage across the Arabian desert in 518, Darius would have continued
through the wadi Tumilat and thus would have noticed this uncompleted canal.
His interest quickened by hopes of a cheaper and more direct route to India, he
resolved to complete the task.
Necho’s line of
excavation had been sanded up and must first be cleared. Wells had to be dug
for the workmen. When finally opened [about 497 BCE], the
canal was a hundred and fifty feet wide and deep enough for merchantmen. This
predecessor of the present-day Suez Canal could be traversed in four days.
Five huge red-granite
stelae to commemorate this vast project greeted the eyes of the traveler at
intervals along the banks. On one side the twice-repeated Darius holds within
an Egyptian cartouche his cuneiform name under the protection of the Ahuramazda
symbol. In the three cuneiform languages he declares: “I am a Persian.
From Parsa I seized Egypt. I commanded this canal to be dug from the river,
Nile by name, which flows in Egypt, to the sea which goes from Parsa. Afterward
this canal was dug as I commanded, and ships passed from Egypt through this
canal to Parsa as was my will.”
. . . . After a reference to the city Parsa and
to Cyrus, the stele tells how the building of the canal was discussed and how
the task was accomplished. Tribute was forwarded by twenty-four boats to Parsa.
Darius was complimented and order was given for the erection of the stelae,
never had a like thing occurred.” Olmstead (1978), pp. 145–147.
“This
[the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea] was begun by Necho II, and completed
by Darius I, who set up stelae c. 490 [BCE]..,
and later restored by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, Trajan and Hadrian, and Amr ibn
el-‘Asi, the Muslim conqueror of Egypt. Its length from Tell el-Maskhuta
to Suez was about 85 km.” Baines and Málek (1984), p. 48.
The original canal was in three sections.
the first joined the head of the Gulf of Suez with the Great Bitter Lake; the
second was then connected with Lake Timsah to the north by another canal. The
third section ran from Lake Timsah west, along the Wadi Tumilat to an ancient
branch of the Nile which flowed into the Mediterranean just west of the
frontier post of Pelusium.
“The
rulers of ancient Egypt saw little advantage in linking the two seas, but they
considered that much could be gained if the ships plying up and down the Nile
were able to sail directly into the Red Sea and so reach the markets of Arabia
and the Horn of Africa. So at the beginning of the sixth century BC, the
Pharaoh Necho II started to excavate a linking channel. At that time, a branch
of the Lower Nile ran eastwards from where the city of Cairo now stands, to
empty into the Mediterranean at the town of Pelusium at the easternmost corner
of the delta. Necho’s plan was to dig a canal from half-way along this
branch, due east of Lake Timsah, and then south through the Bitter Lakes to
reach the most northerly tip of the Red Sea at Suez. The labour involved was
immense. The Greek historian, Herodotus, stated that one hundred thousand
people were killed as the work proceeded [sic. Herodotus says a hundred and
twenty thousand – see above]. Eventually, the Pharaoh was warned by an
oracle that the human cost was too high, and accordingly he ordered the work to
be halted.
In 520 BC, however,
Darius, King of the Persians, invaded Egypt and he commanded that the work
should be started again. He apparently saw it not merely as a useful trade
route but also a monument to his own glory, for he set up at least four stone
tablets along its course, declaring that he, as the conqueror of Egypt, had
decreed that the canal should be dug. It was, certainly, a spectacular
achievement. Strabo, the Greek geographer who lived at the beginning of the
Christian era, described the completed waterway as being wide enough to
accommodate abreast two triremes – war galleys with three tiers of oars
on each side – so it was probably at least a hundred feet across. The
journey from the Nile to the Red Sea took, he says, about four days. The canal
was, however, very difficult to maintain. Sand continually drifted into it,
silting it up. It was cleaned out and repaired several times by the Romans
during their rule of the country, and again by the Arabs when they annexed
Egypt in the eighth century AD. Eventually, the Arabs decided it was more
trouble than it was worth, and they filled it in altogether.”
Attenborough (1987), pp. 177-178.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus (king of Egypt
285-246 BCE), again reopened the Nile-Red Sea canal. By the
first century CE, all three sections of the canal had silted up and
goods from the east had to be landed in the Red Sea ports of Berenice and Myos
Hormos, transported overland to the Nile, and shipped down to Alexandria,
adding greatly to the difficulty and cost of getting them to markets. This is
the situation described so well by Pliny and the author of the Periplus,
both written in the 1st century CE.
“Various
public works may also have been connected with the India trade. The road from Bostra
to Aila was built immediately after the annexation of Arabia to the Roman
Empire. The speed with which the project was undertaken suggests an urgent
strategic need rather than long term commercial considerations. A second
project on a grander scale was the clearing of the silted-up Ptolemaic
‘Suez Canal’ by Trajan. It is hard to perceive of this canal in
other than commercial terms. Trajan had a fondness for such projects and was
certainly well aware of the economic advantages of water-borne commerce. The
canal was maintained throughout the imperial period, but in the first three
centuries of its existence we possess only one reference to its use in the
India trade.” Raschke (1976), p. 649.
“Later, on the other side of the Nile, Hadrian built Antinoöpolis in
memory of his young friend Antinous, and laid down the Via Hadriana, the only
formal Roman road in all of Egypt. An inscription found at Antinoöpolis
states that by an order of Hadrian a road was built from that city on the Nile
across the desert to the Red Sea and along it southward to the port-city of
Berenice at 36 degrees south latitude. Berenice was the entrepot for
shipping from India and by the Arabias. There are today, however, few traces of
the hydreumata, stations and garrisons mentioned in the inscriptions. No
milestones have been found to confirm the road. A few sections of cleared track
or way have been seen, but nowhere is the surface paved. The conclusion
recorded in the Tabula Imperii Romani is that the formal Via Hadriana has
vanished. Yet there is evidence of its use in early Christian and Nabataean
graffiti carved on rocks at Berenice, and in the remains of a Roman
temple.” Von Hagen (1967), p. 109.
“On the
Egyptian side [of the Red Sea], Trajan cleared out the old canal which had
silted up again since Ptolemaic days, and dug a new section at its western end,
to bring it to the Nile at the Egyptian Babylon, on the site of Old Cairo; this
would afford a better connection with the western or Canopic arm of the Nile
delta, leading to Alexandria. Where Trajan’s canal joined the Red Sea
there now grew up the port of Clysma.” Hourani (1995), p. 34.
“By 31
B.C. the Pelusiac branch of the Nile had dwindled and no communication was
possible. In A.D. 98 Trajan is said to have built the Amnis Trajanus, a
new canal from Bubastis to Old Babylon (Cairo), though this may have been done
later by ‘Amr. For the Arabians had rediscovered the old bed, silted up
after centuries of neglect, and used it down to 770 when Caliph Mansur, the
founder of Bagdat, closed it. The terminus of ‘Amr’s canal was near
Suez (Kolzum). Parts of it were used until Mehemet Ali closed them in 1811, and
were even utilized by the French in constructing the present Suez canal.”
Hyde (1947), p. 193, n. 15.
“At the
period of these texts (AD 183/4), the Arabian nome would appear to have covered
a roughly crescent-shaped area, reaching from the eastern bank of the Bubastite
(Pelusiac) branch of the Nile (at the mouth of the Wadi Tumilat in the south
west, as far as Phacusae in the north) via the Wadi Tumilat (i.e. along
Trajan’s Canal) to at least Thaubasthis (4067 8)as its maximum north-east
extent, and then perhaps curving south to the Gulf of Suez. This is a large
area for one nome and its administration must have been difficult, but much of
it of course was probably only thinly populated, and in terms simply of
population the whole area may not have differed so much from other nomes. Some
of this area belonged to other nomes at different periods. . . .
The capital of the
Arabian nome at this time was Phacusae, ε
Φακoυcιτ¢v πόλι [e
phakousiton polis](4063 21-22, 4064 5), which agrees with what we know from
Ptolemy, Geogr.. IV 5.24 (for other occurrences and variants of the
name, see 4063 21-2n.). Despite divergent opinion going back to Naville, Goshen
and the shrine of Saft el-Henneth (Mem. Eg. Expl. Fund 6: London,
1887), and still echoed in recent works, e.g. A Guide to the Zenon Archive
II (= P. Lugd.-Bat. XXI/B) 500, according to which the city occupied the site of
modern Saft el-Henna, Phacusae should be identifiable with modern
Fâqûs, even though the identification cannot be archaeologically
documented and is based on phonetic similarity combined with the difficulty of
finding a satisfactory Arabic etymology (J. de Rougé, Géographie
ancienne de la Basse Égypte (Paris, 1891) 131-9). If we locate
Phacusae at Fâqûs, we are forced to conclude that there had been a
change in the location of the metropolis of the nome. In Pharonic times and
still in the Ptolemaic period, as the Edfu temple list shows (Edfou I
335), the 20th nome of Lower Egypt (I3bt, ‘the
East’), i.e. Arabia, had as its capital Pr-Spdw, located with certainty
by Naville’s 1885 excavations at Saft el-Henna, around 30 km south west
of Fâqûs, in the plain between Zagazig (Bubastis) and the western
end of the Wadi Tumilat (cf. P. Montet, Géographie 206 ff.).
Besides, Strabo mentions Phacusae as a κώμη [kome]
(17.I.26; C805), although one should perhaps not expect precise administrative
terminology from Strabo, see P. Pédech, La géographie urbaine
chez Strabon’, in Ancient Society 2 (1971) 241. Of Pr-Spdw/Saft
el-Henna we know neither the Greek nor the Latin name. The identification of
Saft el-Henna with Άραβία [Arabia] in A.
Calderini, Diz. geogr. I 2.180 is the product of confusion. Cf. H. Kees,
RE XIX.2 1611.53 ff.; S. Timm, Das christlich-koptische Ägypten
in arabischer Zeit ii (Weisbaden, 1984) 924.
The greater part of Trajan’s Canal
lay within the Arabian nome; thus it is not surprising that contracts for
working on it (4070 below) come within the competence of the strategus of the
nome. 4070 indicates that the metropolis Phacusae lay close to (περί)
- [peri] the canal. Modern Fâqûs lies some 30 km from where the
nearest point of the canal would have been on its route north-eastwards turning
into the Adi Tumilat. We are inclined to propose that at the point where the
canal bent eastwards there was a branch which continued north-eastwards,
passing Phacusae [Zagazig/Bubastis] and giving access to the north-eastern
Delta, and that this branch was also known as Trajan’s Canal: cf. 4070
8n. Bastianini and Coles (1994), pp. 145-146. This
proposed branch of the canal would probably have followed the old Pelusaic
branch of the Nile as far Phacusae, from where it was only a short run to
Tanis, which may have still bordered the sea at this period.
From
the Pelusaic branch of the Nile it was possible to travel to Tanis by the first
leg of the ancient Butic canal which led on to Alexandria. See Uphill (1988),
pp. 163-170; and ibid., (2000) pp. 186-187.
“After
the river to Pi-Ramses silted up in the 11th century B.C. Tanis
became a national capital, attracting merchant boats and fishermen. . . .
Memories of Ramses the
Great live on, thanks to the many megaliths he built of himself, including a
few stockpiled in Tanis. . . .
In the 11th
century B.C. the city of Tanis, on the eastern perimeter of the delta, grew up
as a national capital and military stronghold. From here Egypt maintained a
buffer zone against the rising powers of Assyria and Babylonia.
“It’s the
highest point in the delta,” Phillippe Brissaud, an archaeologist, said
as he pointed to a gentle slope rising over a plain scattered with broken
statues, a decapitated obelisk, and the deserted temples of once grand Tanis.
“Look at this half
statue of Ramses II,” my guide Yahya Emaara said as we walked down an
avenue strewn with diorite and granite remnants. “Have you ever seen more
beautiful shins or kneecaps?” Aswan provided the granite for these
dimpled royal knees, via a now extinct branch of the Nile. The statue itself
was hauled here from the former delta capital of Pi-Ramses. . . .
The walls of Tanis were
almost 50 feet thick!” Theroux (1977), pp. 14, 18, 20.
“It was,
then, in 1884 that Mr. Petrie worked for the Egypt Exploration Fund on the site
of that famous city called in Egyptian Ta-an, or Tsàn; transcribed as
“Tanis” by the Greeks, and rendered in Hebrew as
“Zoan.” It yet preserves an echo of these ancient names as the Arab
village of “Sàn.” This site, historically and Biblically the
most interesting in Egypt, is the least known to visitors. It enjoys an evil
reputation for rain, east winds, and fever; it is very difficult of access; and
it is entirely without resources for the accommodation of travellers. Not many
tourists care to encounter a dreary railway trip followed by eight or ten hours
in a small row-boat, with no inn and no prospect of anything but salt fish to
eat at the end of the journey. The daring few take tents and provisions with
them ; and those few are mostly sportsmen, attracted less by the antiquities of
Sân-el-Hagar than by the aquatic birds which frequent the adjacent
lake.” Edwards (1891), pp. 50-51.
It was thus possible to sail from Daphnae
in the east, right across the delta to Marea in the west, near Alexandria, via
the Butic canal:
“This
artificial waterway had an estimated length of 180 kilometres, and starting
from Tell Defenneh [Daphnae], connected eleven Lower Egyptian nomes on or near
its route [including Tanis]. Inscriptional evidence suggests it was created by,
or else completed under King Psamtek I (664-610 BCE).
Among its varied uses, it could have served to transport grain and commodities
by boat, and help irrigate lands on either side of it. In addition it could
also have been used for moving troops as was done by the Emperor Titus. At a
time of military threat by the world power Assyria, a major canal protected by
and communicating with Greek and Egyptian troops at Marea in the west [near
Alexandria] and Daphnae in the east would also clearly serve as a first line of
defence for the Saitie rulers.” Uphill (2000), p. 186.
The junction of the two canals – the
one joining the Red Sea and the Nile, and the Butic canal linking up with
Alexandria, meant that goods could be transported all the way from Alexandria
to the Red Sea. It was likely that most of this traffic would have been
one-way, as it was, due to the prevailing winds, notoriously difficult to sail
northwards in the upper part of the Red Sea. Significant cargoes from the East
destined for Alexandria were normally unloaded at one of the Red Sea ports,
such as Berenice or Myos Hormos, transported overland to the Nile and then
taken via the Nile and the Butic canal to Alexandria. However, it would have
been cheaper and easier to use the waterways for the return voyage. Quite
possibly cargoes were taken by smaller vessels from Alexandria to a port such
as Myos Hormos, and then loaded on to one of the large merchant ships that made
the long journeys to India or beyond.
This route involved
crossing two major branches of the Nile, the ‘Sebannitus’ and the
‘Canopis’ which are probably the two river crossings mentioned in
the Weilue.
“... the
Nile divides Egypt in two from the Cataracts to the sea, running as far as the
city of Cercasorus in a single stream, but at that point separating into three
branches, whereof the one which bends eastward is called the Pelusiac mouth,
and that which slants to the west, the Canobic. Meanwhile the straight course
of the stream, which comes down from the upper country and meets the apex of
the Delta [a little above modern Bubastis], continues on, dividing the Delta
down the middle, and empties itself into the sea by a mouth, which is as celebrated,
and carries as large a body of water, as most of the others, the mouth called
Sebennytic. Besides these there are two other mouths which run out of the
Sebennytic called respectively the Saitic and the Mendesian. The Bolbitine
mouth, and the Bucolic, are not natural branches, but channels made by
excavation” Herodotus, (1996 edition), pp. 123-124 (II.17).
“Two
branches of the Nile divide to the right and left, forming the boundaries of
Lower Egypt: the Canopic mouth separates it from Africa, and the Pelusiac mouth
separates it from Asia, with a space of 170 miles [252 km] between the
two.” Pliny the Elder, NH V.47-8; (1991), p. 58.
N. Kanishka’s hostage in History
and Legend.
The Hou Hanshu says:
“During
the Yuanchu period [114-120 CE] in the reign of Emperor An, Anguo, the king of Shule (Kashgar),
exiled his maternal uncle Chenpan to the Yuezhi (Kushans) for some offence. The
king of the Yuezhi became very fond of him. Later, Anguo died without leaving a
son. His mother directed the government of the kingdom. She agreed with the
people of the country to put Yifu (lit. ‘Posthumous Child’), who
was the son of a full younger brother of Chenpan on the throne as king of Shule
(Kashgar). Chenpan heard of this and appealed to the Yuezhi (Kushan) king, saying:
“Anguo
had no son. The men of his mother’s family are young and weak. I am
Yifu’s paternal uncle; it is I who should be king.”
The Yuezhi
(Kushans) then sent soldiers to escort him back to Shule (Kashgar). The people
had previously respected and been fond of Chenpan. Besides, they dreaded the
Yuezhi (Kushans). They immediately took the seal and ribbon from Yifu and went
to Chenpan, and made him king. Yifu was given the title of Marquis of the town
of Pangao [90 li or 37 km from Shule].
Then
Suoju (Yarkand) continued to resist (Khotan), and put themselves under Shule
(Kashgar). Thus Shule (Kashgar), because of its power, became a rival to Qiuci
(Kucha) and Yutian (Khotan).” From TWR, Section 20.
This all fits very well with story that a
Kushan king (according to Xuanzang, Kanishka himself) received a prince as a
hostage during the Yuanchu
period (114-120 CE) of whom he became very fond and ultimately sent
troops to install him on the throne of Kashgar. See TWR, Section
21.
In addition, a story in the 8th century Khotanese Buddhist history,
the Li yul lung-btsan-pa, says:
“Afterwards
King Vijaya Kīrti, for whom a manifestation of the Ārya
Mañjuśrī, the Arhat called Spyi-pri who was propagating the
religion (dharma) in Kam-śen was acting as pious friend, through
being inspired by faith, built the vihāra of Sru-ño.
Originally, King Kanika and the king of Gu-zan and the Li [Khotan] ruler, King
Vijaya Kīrti, and others led an army into India, and when they captured
the city called So-ked, King Vijaya Kīrti obtained many relics and put
them in the stūpa of Sru-ño.” Emmerick (1967), p. 47.
The Tibetan name So-ked has been
identified with Śāketa, and King Kanika with Kanishka. See: Thomas
(1935-1963), Vol. I, (1935), p. 119, n. 2.
Thus, the Buddhist
‘Prophecy of the Li Country’ which includes the legend of the
Khotanese King helping Kanishka conquer Sāketa finds much support from the
information given above. A Khotanese king called Vijaya Simha, defeats the king
of the Ga-hjag (the name of a people living in the region of Kashgar and
Yarkand). He was presumably the king called Guangde in the Chinese accounts who
captured the King of Yarkand in 86 CE. The king
following Vijaya Simha in the Buddhist account is King Vijaya Kīrti (who, as
we have seen above, was the Khotanese king who, along with the king of Kucha,
is said to have helped Kanishka in his attack on Sāketa).
The
Hou Hanshu provides some dates and information which help support this
theory:
“When
(the Khotanese king) Xiumoba died, Guangde, son of his elder brother, assumed
power and subsequently destroyed Suoju (Yarkand, in CE 61). His kingdom then became very prosperous. From Jingjue (Niya)
northwest, as far as Sulei (Kashgar), thirteen kingdoms were subject to
him.” Hou Hanshu, “Chapter on the Western Regions.”
The Hou Hanshu says that in 73 CE, the king of Khotan, Guangde, submitted to Ban Chao, the famous
Chinese general:
“Previously
the Yuezhi (Kushans) had helped the Chinese attack Jushi (Turfan/Jimasa) and
had carried out some important services (for the Chinese). In this year (88 CE) they offered precious jewels, fuba [bubal antelope], and lions in
tribute. They took this occasion to ask for a Han princess. Ban Chao stopped
their envoy and sent him back. From this moment there was hatred and resentment
(between the Kushans and the Chinese).” Translated from Chavannes (1906),
p. 232.
This quote does not give a date for when
the Yuezhi helped the Chinese against Jushi (Turfan/ Jimasa), but we know the
Chinese attacked and defeated Jushi in CE 74. Chavannes
(1905), p. 222, and again in CE 76 (Ibid, p. 230).
Presumably, it was one of these occasions that is referred to in the text.
In 84 CE Ban Chao, the Chinese general, sent an envoy with gifts and lengths
of silk to the king of the Yuezhi to encourage him to pressure the king of
Kangju to stop hostilities against the Chinese, and to pressure on the King of
Kashgar who was in league with Yarkand against the Chinese. The Kangju ceased
hostilities and seized Zhong, the king of Kashgar and took him to Kangju. Three
years later in 86 CE [Chavannes says 87, but the Hou Hanshu says
86 CE], King Zhong convinced the Kangju to help him and
plotted with the king of Kucha to pretend to submit to the Chinese. However,
Ban Chao arrested him and had him beheaded. See Chavannes (1906), p. 230.
In 86 CE Guangde, the king of Khotan, attacked Yarkand, and put the son of the
previous king, Qili, on the throne – Chavannes (1907), p. 204. In 87 CE the “king of Khotan” (presumably Guangde) helped Ban Chao
attack and defeat Yarkand once again. See Chavannes (1906), p. 231. [Note that Chavannes mistakenly
places this event in CE 88]
In 90 CE the Yuezhi sent their Viceroy Xian, with an army of 70,000 soldiers,
across the mountains to attack Ban Chao. Using a ‘scorched earth’
policy, Ban Chao forced them to retreat without fighting.
King Vijaya Kīrti,
who is said to have assisted Kanishka in this conquest, is listed in the
‘Prophecy of the Li Country’ as the king who took the throne
immediately following Vijaya Simha. I have identified King Vijaya Simha with
King Guangde who reigned until at least 86 CE, according to
the Chinese accounts. This makes it quite possible that Vijaya Kīrti could
have accompanied Kanishka circa 127.
In addition, Kīrti
is listed in the Li yul lung-btsan-pa as being 30 generations before
King Vijaya Sangrāma IV, identified with King Fudu Xiong [Fu-tu Hsiung]
who fled to China with his family and followers in 674 CE. The average reign was slightly less than 15 years (counting from 127
CE), which seems very reasonable. Hill (1988), pp.
179-190.
We also have
archaeological and numismatic evidence pointing to strong Kushan influence, if
not control, of both Kashgar and Khotan during the period of 107-127 CE, when the Chinese were cut off from these regions:
“107-127
In 107 Khotan
and the other cities of Turkestan threw off the yoke of Chinese rule. There is
no reference to events in Khotan during this period in the Chinese records, but
archaeological evidence suggests that for most of this period the Kushans
exercised political control over the city. None of the names of the kings of
Khotan during this period are known. No coins were issued locally, but the
coins of the Kushans were current.
127-9
In 127 the
Chinese army led by Ban Chao’s son Ban Yong re-entered the area and
Khotan placed itself under Chinese rule again. The name of the king of Khotan,
Fang Qian [= Vijaya Kīrti of the “Prophecy of Khotan”], is
noted in the Chinese sources, but he is unlikely to have issued coins while
under Chinese control.
129-132
In 129 Fang
Qian rebelled against the Chinese and attacked a neighbouring state. His
coinage probably dates from this period. In 131 he attempted to re-subject
himself to Chinese rule, but without success. In 132 he was conquered by
Kashgar at the request of the Chinese.
132
After 132
Khotan was again under Chinese control, and no local coins have been found
which can be shown to have been issued after that date. ” Cribb (1985),
p. 143.
Christopher Beckwith identifies the king
of Gu-zan of the Li yul lung-btsan-pa or ‘Prophecy of the Li
Country’ who went on campaign with Kanishka in the company of the king of
Kucha (= Kūči, Kūčā, Kushâ, Kūsān,
Kučinaṅ, Küsän, Kūšān, Cucia).
See Beckwith (1987), p. 50, and n. 66 (where he refers to this identification
being made by P. Pelliot in “À propos des Comans” (1920)
181; cf. also Moriyasu, 1984: 17, 65 (n. 84); Ts’en (1981), pp. 576, 578.
Pelliot says:
“Here
again, the Yuanshi is not very detailed; at least it supplies us with
several precise references (chap. 1, fol. 5b): “Yilaha (that is Sanggum
[son of Ong Khan and contemporary of Genghis Khan]) fled to the 西夏 Xi Xia.
There he daily raided to provide for his needs. Finally, he was attacked by the
[people of] Xi Xia and fled into the country of 龜玆 Qiuci. The
chief of the kingdom of Qiuci followed him with troops and killed him.”
The countries of Xi Xia and Qiuci are well known. Thus, Sanggum, having crossed
the Gobi towards the south, arrived in the north of Gansu, where the Xi Xia
was, and from there was flung westward to be killed on the territory of Qiuci,
that is, Kucha.
We have thus
simultaneously a certain identification of the country of which Rashid-ud-Din
speaks and of which Mr. Marquart has read the names Kūshān and
Kusaqu-Chār-Kusha. For the reasons that until now have escaped us, the
country known today as Kucha (Kūchā, locally pronounced Kuchar), and
for which the ancient transcriptions of the Han or the Tang infer an original
form *Küchï, had been called during the Mongol period and under the
Ming Kǖsǟn, generally transcribed 曲先 Quxian(1)..
The form Kūsān (=Kǖsǟn) is also attested by the Tarikh-i-Rashidi(2).
It is evident that this is the کژﺷﺎﻦ Kūshān of Rashid-ud-Din, which is
unconvincingly to be corrected to کژﺳﺎﻦ Kūsān.
On the other hand, this very name of Kusan should form in some manner the
beginning of the mysterious Kusaqu-Chār-Kusha”.
(1)
Cf. for example BRETSCHNEIDER, Med. Res., I, 163; II, 315, 330. And add
to it Yuanshi, chap. 12, fol 5a, 7a. One has 古先 Guxian (= Güsän; corr.
苦先 Kuxian = Küsän?) in the
§ 263 of the Yuanzhaobishi. The Chinese transcription is explicitly
in favour of Küsän and not Küshän or Kushan.
(2)
Cf. ELIAS and ROSS, Tarikh-i-Rashidi, in the index, s. v. Kuchar and
Kusan.
Pelliot (1920),
p. 181 and nn. 1-2.
“Tibetan
troops were also frequently reported in the lands to the north and west.
Tun-huang annals note that in 675 and 676 a Tibetan minister had gone to lTang-yo
in Dru-gu-yul, the Western Turkish lands. These visits were apparently
connected to efforts by the T’ang empire to regain the Silk Route. The
T’ang annals remark in an entry of 676 that a battle was waged with the
Tibetan-Turkish alliance for the four garrisons along the Silk Route. Again
between 687 and 689 the minister mGar Khri-’bring led troops to Dru-gu
Gu-zan, which may be the Kucha region or perhaps old Kuṣāṇa
lands.
Exactly how far west
beyond Kucha and Khotan Tibetan troops reached is not clear, for lTang-yo and
Gu-zan have not been identified with certainty. It seems possible that Tibetan
armies entered Sogdia, for the Tun-huang annals note that in 694 the Tibetan
minister mGar sTag-bu was captured by the Sogdians. But nothing else is known
of this event, which may have taken place in Sogdia or in one of the many
Sogdian merchant outposts along the Silk Route.
Sogdia lay to the west
of Khotan and was inhabited by peoples who spoke an Indo-European language
related to Khotanese. As early as 627 the Sogdians had begun building the four
great cities of Lop Nor north of Tibet between Tun-huang and Khotan. Eventually
they spread east into Ordos under the large loop of the Huang Ho east of Koko
Nor. Later Sogdian inscriptions, probably from the ninth century, have been
found at Drang-tse near Pang-gong, and Sogdian texts have been found at
Tun-huang. But the extent of the contact between Sogdia and Tibet will require
further research.” AT, p. 234.
There can be no doubt that Ban Chao, and
the Chinese Emperor, were familiar with the name of the Kushan ruler at this
period. They had intensive diplomatic relations with him over a number of
years, and even a request from him for marriage with a Han princess in 84 CE. After the request was refused, he sent his Viceroy Xian to attack
Ban Chao in 90 CE.
The fact that his name
is not mentioned in the Han histories may have been a deliberate omission
because he had insulted the Chinese Emperor by asking to marry a Chinese
princess, and afterwards attacked the Chinese when they refused. It might be
due to a simple omission by a copyist.
At this point we do not
know. Nor does it add weight either for or against any theory of dating for
Kanishka. It does not make it any less likely that the unnamed king was
Kanishka!
The “Ta
chuang-yen lun ching (or – ching lun), Kalpanālaṃkṛtikā, Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā
traditionally ascribed to Aśvaghoṣa
but very probably by Kumāralāta; translated by Kumārajīva
in the early fifth century. . . . ”, says:
“Formerly
I have heard that among the Chü-sha (Kushan?) race there was a king named
Chen-t’an Chia-ni-cha who (once) made a punitive expedition against
eastern India (T’ien-chu). When (that country) had been pacified, his
majestic power made (the world) tremble and his success was complete, and he
returned to his native country. . . .” Zürcher (1968), p. 385.
In addition, the Fufazangyin zhuan, translated into Chinese by Jijiaye and Tanyao
about CE 470, gives an account of the defeat of Pātaliputra
by ‘Zhendan Jinizha’ (Devaputra Kanishka), and subsequently gives
an account of his defeat of the king of Anxi (Parthia). See: Lévi and
Chavannes (1895), p. 475-476, 479.