Emission Factors by Pollutant | Smoke Emissions References | Change Log

Prichard Susan J., O’Neill Susan M., Eagle Paige, Andreu Anne G., Drye Brian, Dubowy Joel, Urbanski Shawn, Strand Tara M. (2020) Wildland fire emission factors in North America: synthesis of existing data, measurement needs and management applications. International Journal of Wildland Fire 29, 132-147. https://doi.org/10.1071/WF19066

Akagi, S.K., Yokelson, R.J., Burling, I.R., Meinardi, S., Simpson, I., Blake, D.R., McMeeking, G.R., Sullivan, A., Lee, T., Kreideweis, S., Urbanski, S., Reardon, J., Griffeth, D.W.T., Johnson, T.J., and Weise, D.R. 2013. Measurements of reactive trace gases and variable O3 formation rates in some South Carolina biomass burning plumes. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 13: 1141–1165. doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-1141-2013 https://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/13/1141/2013/acp-13-1141-2013.pdf

Aurell, J. and Gullett, B.K. 2013. Emission factors from aerial and ground measurements of field and laboratory forest burns in the southeastern US: PM2.5, black and brown carbon, VOC, and PCDD/PCDF. Environmental Science and Technology 47: 8443-8452. pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es402101k

Aurell, J., Gullett, B., Grier, G., Holder, A., and George, I. 2023. Seasonal emission factors from rangeland prescribed burns in the Kansas Flint Hills grasslands. Atmospheric Environment 304: 119769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2023.119769.

Aurell, J., Gullett, B.K., and Tabor, D. 2015. Emissions from southeastern US grasslands and pine savannas: Comparison of aerial and ground field measurements with laboratory burns. Atmospheric Environment 111: 170-178. doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.03.001

Aurell, J.; Gullett, B.; Holder, A.; Kiros, F.; Mitchell, W.; Watts, A.; Ottmar, R. 2021. Wildland fire emission sampling at Fishlake National Forest, Utah using an unmanned aircraft system. Atmospheric Environment. 247(11): 118193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118193.

Aurell, J.; Gullett, B.K.; Tabor, D.; Yonker, N. 2017. Emissions from prescribed burning of timber slash piles in Oregon. Atmospheric Environment. 150: 395-406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.11.034

Babbitt, R. E., Ward, D. E., Susott, R. A., Hao, W. M. and Baker, S. P. 1994. Smoke From western wildfires, 1994. In: Proceedings of the 1994 Annual Meeting of Interior West Fire Council, Coeur d'Alene, Idaho. 18 p.

Baker, S.; Lincoln, E.; and Richardson, M. 2017. Emissions Sampling and Determination of Emission Factors from the Burning of Open Piled Forest Biomass Residue – Field Trip 1 Summary. Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory, USDA Forest Service

Bertschi, I., Buettner, K., Charlson, R., Fritschen, L., Monteith, L., Murphy, J., Pickford, S., and Darley, E. 2003. Trace gas and particle emissions from fires in large-diameter and belowground biomass fuels. Journal of Geophysical Research 108(D13): 8472. doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002100 https://scholarworks.umt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1047&context=chem_pubs

Bovee, H., Buettner, K, Charlson, R., Fritschen, L., Monteith, L., Murphy, J., Pickford, S., and Darley, E. 1969. The study of forest fire atmospheric pollution, USFS 4040 (4000) Interim Report 68-1. 86 p.

Burling, I. R., Yokelson, R. J., Akagi, S. K., Urbanski, S. P., Wold, C. E., Griffith, D. W. T., Johnson, T. J., Reardon, J., and Weise, D. R. 2011. Airborne and ground-based measurements of the trace gases and particles emitted by prescribed fires in the United States. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 11: 12197-12216. doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-12197-2011 https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2011_burling_i001.pdf

Burling, I. R., Yokelson, R. J., Griffith, D. W. T., Johnson, T. J., Veres, P., Roberts, J. M., Warneke, C., Urbanski, S. P., Reardon, J., Weise, D. R., Hao, W. M., and de Gouw, J. 2010. Laboratory measurements of trace gas emissions from biomass burning of fuel types from the southeastern and southwestern United States. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 10: 11115-11130. doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-11115-2010 https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2010_burling_i002.pdf

Chen, L.-W. A., Moosmüller, H., Arnott, W. P., Chow, J. C., Watson J. G., Susott, R. A., Babbitt, R.E. , Wold, C. E., Lincoln , E. N., and Hao, W. M. 2007. Emissions from laboratory combustion of wildland fuels: emission factors and source profiles. Environmental Science & Technology 41: 4317-4325. doi.org/10.1021/es062364i https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2007_chen_l001.pdf

Chen, L.-W. A., Verburg, P., Shackelford, A., Zhu, D., Susfalk, R., Chow, J. C., and Watson, J. G. 2010. Moisture effects on carbon and nitrogen emission from burning of wildland biomass. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 10: 6617-6625. doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-6617-2010 https://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/10/6617/2010/acp-10-6617-2010.pdf

Clements, H. B. and McMahon, C. K. 1980. Nitrogen oxides from burning forest fuels examined by thermogravimetry and evolved gas analysis. Thermochimica Acta 35: 133-139. doi.org/10.1016/0040-6031(80)87187-5 https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_mcmahon015.pdf

Clements, H. B. and McMahon, C. K. 1984. A microcombustion method to measure forest fuel emissions. Journal of Fire Sciences 2: 260-275. doi.org/10.1177/073490418400200402 https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/clements_mcmahon_1984.pdf

Freeborn, P. H., M. J. Wooster, W. M. Hao, C. A. Ryan, B. L. Nordgren, S. P. Baker, and C. Ichoku. 2008. Relationships between energy release, fuel mass loss, and trace gas and aerosol emissions during laboratory biomass fires. J. Geophys. Res., 113, D01301. doi.org/10.1029/2007JD008679

Gkatzelis, G. I., Coggon, M. M., Stockwell, C. E., Hornbrook, R. S., Allen, H., Apel, E. C., Ball, K., Bela, M. M., Blake, D. R., Bourgeois, I., Brown, S. S., Campuzano-Jost, P., St. Clair, J. M., Crawford, J. H., Crounse, J. D., Day, D. A., DiGangi, J., Diskin, G., Fried, A., Gilman, J., Guo, H., Hair, J. W., Halliday, H. A., Hanisco, T. F., Hannun, R., Hills, A., Huey, G., Jimenez, J. L., Katich, J. M., Lamplugh, A., Lee, Y. R., Liao, J., Lindaas, J., McKeen, S. A., Mikoviny, T., Nault, B. A., Neuman, J. A., Nowak, J. B., Pagonis, D., Peischl, J., Perring, A. E., Piel, F., Rickly, P. S., Robinson, M. A., Rollins, A. W., Ryerson, T. B., Schueneman, M. K., Schwantes, R. H., Schwarz, J. P., Sekimoto, K., Selimovic, V., Shingler, T., Tanner, D. J., Tomsche, L., Vasquez, K., Veres, P. R., Washenfelder, R., Weibring, P., Wennberg, P. O., Wisthaler, A., Wolfe, G., Womack, C., Xu, L., Yokelson, R., and Warneke, C. 2023. Parameterizations of US wildfire and prescribed fire emission ratios and emission factors based on FIREX-AQ aircraft measurements, EGUsphere [preprint], https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-1439.

Goode, J. G., Yokelson, R. J., Susott, R. A., and Ward, D. E. 1999. Trace gas emissions from laboratory biomass fires measured by open-path Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy: fires in grass and surface fuels. Journal of Geophysical Research 104(D17): 21237-21245. doi.org/10.1029/1999JD900360 https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/goode_et_al_1999.pdf

Goode, J. G., Yokelson, R. J., Ward, D. E., Susott, R. A., Babbitt, R. E., Davies, M. A. and Hao, W. M. 2000. Measurements of excess O3, CO2, CO, CH4, C2H4, C2H2, HCN, NO, NH3, HCOOH, CH3COOH, HCHO, and CH3OH in 1997 Alaskan biomass burning plumes by airborne Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (AFTIR). Journal of Geophysical Research 105(D17): 22147-22166. doi.org/10.1029/2000JD900287 https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2000JD900287

Hardy, C. C., Conard, S. G., Regelbrugge, J. C., and Teesdale, D. R. 1996. Smoke Emissions From Prescribed Burning of Southern California Chaparral. Research Paper, PNW-RP-486. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 37 p. https://doi.org/10.2737/PNW-RP-486

Hardy, Colin C.; Ward, Darold E. 1986. Emission factors for particulate matter by phase of combustion from prescribed burning. In: Proceedings, 1986 annual meeting of the Pacific Northwest International Section, Air Pollution Control Association; 1986 November 19-21; Eugene, OR. Pittsburg, PA: Air Pollution Control Association. p. 151-159. https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/hardy_ward_1986.pdf

Hays, M. D., Geron, C. D., Linna, K. J., Smith, N. D., and Schauer, J. J. 2002. Speciation of gas-phase and fine particle emissions from burning of foliar fuels. Environmental Science & Technology 36: 2281–2295. doi.org/10.1021/es0111683

Hegg, D., Radke, L. F., Hobbs, P. V., Rasmussen, R. A., and Riggan, P. J. 1989. Emissions of some trace gases from biomass fires. 82nd Annual Meeting and Exhibition Anaheim, California, June 25-30, 198, 14 p. https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/hegg_et_al_1990.pdf

Hennigan, C. J., Miracolo, M. A., Engelhart, G. J., May, A. A., Presto, A. A., Lee, T., Sullivan, A. P., McMeeking, G. R., Coe, H., Wold, C. E., Hao, W.-M., Gilman, J. B., Kuster, W. C., de Gouw, J., Schichtel, B. A., Collett Jr., J. L., Kreidenweis, S. M., and Robinson. 2011. Chemical and Physical Transformations of Organic Aerosol from the Photo-oxidation of Open Biomass Burning in an Environmental Chamber. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 11: 7669-7686. doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-7669-2011 https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2011_hennigan_c001.pdf

Hosseini, S., Urbanski, S.P., Dixit, P., Qi, L., Burling, I.R., Yokelson, R.J., Johnson, T.J., Shrivastava, M., Jung, H.S., Weise, D.R., Miller, J.W., and Cocker III, D.R. 2013. Laboratory characterization of PM emissions from combustion of wildland biomass fuels, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 118, 9914–9929, doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50481

Jenkins, B.; Turn, S.; Williams, R.; Goronea, M.; Abd-el-Fattah, H.; Hehlschau, J.; Raubach, N.; Chang, D.; Kand, M.; Teague, S.; Raabe, O.G.; Campbell, D.E.; Cahill, T.A.; Pritchett, L.; Chow, J.; Jones, A.D. 1996. Atmospheric Pollutant Emission Factors from Open Burning of Agricultural and Forest Biomass by Wind Tunnel Simulations; CARB Report No. A932-196; California Air Resources Board: Sacramento, CA

Koss, A. R., Sekimoto, K., Gilman, J. B., Selimovic, V., Coggon, M. M., Zarzana, K. J., Yuan, B., Lerner, B. M., Brown, S. S., Jimenez, J. L., Krechmer, J., Roberts, J. M., Warneke, C., Yokelson, R. J., and de Gouw, J. 2018. Non-methane organic gas emissions from biomass burning: identification, quantification, and emission factors from PTR-ToF during the FIREX 2016 laboratory experiment. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 18: 3299-3319. doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-3299-2018 https://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/18/3299/2018/acp-18-3299-2018.pdf

Liu, X., Huey, L.G., Yokelson, R.J., Selimovic, V., Simpson, I.J., Muller, M., Jimenez, J.L., Campuzano-Jost, P., Beyersdorf, A.J., Black, D.R., Butterfield, A., Choi, Y., Crounse, J.D., Day, D.A., Diskin, G.S., Dubey, M.K., Fortner, E., Hanisco, T.F., Hu, W., King, L.E. 2017. Airborne measurements of western U.S. wildfire emissions: Comparison with prescribed burning and air quality implications. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 122: 6108-6129. doi.org/10.1002/2016JD026315

Lutes, C.; Kariher, P. 1998. Evaluation of Emissions from the Open Burning of Land-Clearing Debris; EPA-600/R-96-128; NTIS PB97-115356; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; National Risk Management Research Laboratory: Research Triangle Park, NC

McKenzie, L. M., Hao, W. M., Richards, G. N., and Ward, D. E. 1994. Quantification of major components emitted from smoldering combustion of wood. Atmospheric Environment 28: 3285-3292. doi.org/10.1016/1352-2310(94)00158-H https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/mckenzie_et_al_1994.pdf

McKenzie, L. M., Hao, W. M., Richards, G. N., and Ward, D. E. 1995. Measurement and modeling of air toxins from smoldering combustion of biomass. Environmental Science & Technology 29: 2047–2054. doi.org/10.1021/es00008a025

McMeeking, G. R., Kreidenweis, S. M., Baker, S. Carrico, C. M., Chow, J. C., Collett, J. L., Hao, W. M., Holden, A. S., Kirchstetter, T. W., Malm, W. C., Moosmüller, H., Sullivan, A. P., and Wold, C. E. 2009. Emissions of trace gases and aerosols during the open combustion of biomass in the laboratory. Journal of Geophysical Research 114: D19210. doi.org/10.1029/2009JD011836 https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2009_mcmeeking_g001.pdf

Mickler, R. A., Rorig, M., Geron, C. D., Achtemier, G. L., Bailey, A. D., Krull, C., and Brownlie, D. 2007. Development and demonstration of smoke plume, fire emissions, and pre-and post-prescribed fire fuel models on North Carolina coastal plain forest ecosystems. In: Proceedings of The Fire Environment - Innovations, Management, and Policy Conference, Destin, Florida, March 26-30, 2007. USDA Forest Service RMRS-P-46CD. pgs 409-426. https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_p046.pdf

Nance, D. J., Hobbs, P. V., Radke, L. F., and Ward, D. E. 1993. Airborne measurements of gases and particles from an Alaskan wildfire. Journal of Geophysical Research 98(D8): 14873-14882. doi.org/10.1029/93JD01196 https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/nance_et_al_1993.pdf

Nelson, R. M. 1982. An evaluation of the carbon balance technique for estimating emission factors and fuel consumption in forest fires. Research Paper SE-231. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 9 p. https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/nelson_1982.pdf

Nelson, R. M. and Ward, D. E. 1980. Backfire particulate emissions and Byram's fire intensity. Research Note SE-RN-290. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 6 p. Https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/nelson_ward_1980.pdf

Patterson, E.M. and McMahon, C.K. 1984. Absorption characteristics of forest fire particulate matter. Atmospheric Environment 18:2541-2551. doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(84)90027-1 https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_mcmahon013.pdf

Patterson, E.M., McMahon, C.K, and Ward, D.E. 1986. Absorption properties and graphitic carbon emission factors of forest fire aerosols. Geophysical Research Letters 13: 129-132. doi.org/10.1029/GL013i002p00129 https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/patterson_et_al_1986.pdf

Permar, W., Wang, Q., Selimovic, V., Wielgasz, C., Yokelson, R.J., Hornbrook, R.S., Hills, A.J., Apel, E.C., Ku, I., Zhou, Y., Sive, B.C., Sullivan, A.P., Collett Jr., J.L., Campos, T.L., Palm, B.B., Peng, Q., Thornton, J.A., Garofalo, L.A., Farmer, D.K., Kreidenweis, S.M., Levin, E.J.T., DeMott, P.J., Flocke, F., Fischer, E.V., and Hu, L. 2021. Emissions of trace organic gases from western U.S. wildfires based on WECAN aircraft measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 126, e2020JD033838. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JD033838

Radke, L. F., Hegg, D. A., Nance, J. D., Lyons, J. H., Laursen, K. K., Ferek, R. J., and Hobbs, P. V. 1990. Airborne Observations of Biomass Fires. Final Report to the National Institute of Standards and Technology. 131 p. http://carg.atmos.washington.edu/sys/research/archive/biomass_fires.pdf

Radke, L. F., Hegg, D. A., Lyons, J. H., Brock, P. V., Weiss, R. E., and Rassussen, R. A. 1988. Airborne measurements on smokes from biomass burning. Pages 411-422 In: Hobbs, Peter V.; McCormick, M. Patrick, eds. Aerosols and climate. Hampton, VA: A. Deepak Publishing Co. https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/radke_et_al_1988.pdf

Radke, L. F., Lyons, J. H., Hobbs, P. V., Hegg, D. A., Sandberg, D. V., and Ward, D. E. 1990. Airborne monitoring and smoke characterization of prescribed fires on forest lands in western Washington and Oregon. General Technical Report, PNW-GTR-251. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 81 p. Https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/lawrence_et_al_1990.pdf

Robertson, K.M., Hsieh, Y.P., and Bugna, G.C. 2014. Fire environment effects on particulate matter emission factors in southeastern US pine-grasslands. Atmospheric Environment 99: 104-111. doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.09.058 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231014007511

Sandberg, David V.; Pickford, Stewart G; Darley, Ellis F. 1975. Emissions from slash burning and the influence of flame retardant chemicals. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 25(3):278-281. https://doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1975.10470085

Selimovic, V., Yokelson, R.J., Warneke, C., Roberts, J.M., de Gouw, J., Reardon, J., and Griffith, D.W.T. 2018. Aerosol optical properties and trace gas emissions by PAX and OP-FTIR for laboratory-simulated western US wildfires during FIREX. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 18: 2929–2948. doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-2929-2018 https://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/18/2929/2018/acp-18-2929-2018.pdf

Simpson, I.J., Akagi, S.K., Barletta, B., Blake, N.J., Choi, Y., Diskin, G.S., Fried, A., Fuelberg, H.E., Meinardi, S., Rowland, R.S., Vay, S.A., Weinheimer, A.J., Wennberg, P.O., Wiebring, P., Wisthaler, A., Yang, M., Yokelson, R.J., and Blake, D.R. 2011. Boreal forest fire emissions in fresh Canadian smoke plumes: C1-C10 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), CO2, CO, NO2, NO, HCN, and CH3CN. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 11: 6445-6463. doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-6445-2011 https://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/11/6445/2011/acp-11-6445-2011.pdf

Strand, T., Rorig, M., Yedinak, K., Seto, D., Allwine, E., Garcia, F.A., O'Keefe, P., Checan, V.C., Mickler, R., Clements, C. and Lamb, B. 2013. Sub-canopy transport and dispersion of smoke: A unique observation dataset and model evaluation. Final Report to the Joint Fire Science Program: Project 09-1-04-2, 63 pp. Https://www.firescience.gov/projects/09-1-04-2/project/09-1-04-2_final_report.pdf

Urbanski, S.P. 2013. Combustion efficiency and emission factors for wildfire-season fires in mixed conifer forests of the northern Rocky Mountains, US. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 13: 7241-7262. doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-7241-2013 https://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/13/7241/2013/acp-13-7241-2013.pdf

Urbanski, S.P., Hao, W. M., and Baker, S. 2009. Chemical composition of wildland fire emissions. In: Bytnerowicz, A., Arbaugh, M., Andersen, C., Riebau, A. 2009. Wildland Fires and Air Pollution. Developments in Environmental Science 8. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elesevier. Pgs. 79-108. https://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/4451/psw_2009_4451-001_079-108.pdf

Ward, D. E. and Hardy, C. C. 1984. Advances in the characterization and control of emissions from prescribed fires. Presented at the 77th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, San Francisco, California, June 24-29, 1984. 32 p. https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/ward_hardy_1984.pdf

Ward, D. E. and Hardy, C. C. 1989. Emissions from prescribed burning of chaparral. Presented at the 82nd Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air and Waste Management Association, Anaheim, California, June 25-30, 1989. 22 p. https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/ward_hardy_1989b.pdf

Ward, D. E. and R.A. Sussott. 1998. Smoke Emissions from Ponderosa Pine Fuels Exposed to a Variety of Fire Histories and Site Preparation Treatments. Final Report for Arizona Burns in 1993 and 1994. Fire Chemistry Project 4404. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory

Ward, D. E., McMahon, C. K., and Adams, D. F. 1982. Laboratory measurements of carbonyl sulfide and total sulfur emissions from open burning of forest biomass. Presented at the 75th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, June 20-25, 1982. 18 p. Https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/ward_et_al_1982b.pdf

Ward, D. E., Sandberg, D.V., Ottmar, R.D., Anderson, J.A., Hofer, G.C., and Fitzsimmons, C.K. 1982. Measurement of smoke from two prescribed fires in the Pacific Northwest. Presented at the 75th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, June 20-25, 1982. 24 p.

Ward, D. E., Hardy, C. C., Ottmar, R. D., and Sandberg, D. V. 1982. A sampling system for measuring emissions from west coast prescribed fires. In: Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, Pacific Northwest International Section; 1982 November 15-17; Vancouver, BC. 10 p. Https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/ward_et_al_1982a.pdf

Ward, D. E., Susott, R. A., Waggoner, A. P., Hobbs, P. V., and Nance, J.D. 1992. Emission factor measurements for two fires in British Columbia compared with results for Oregon and Washington. In: Proceedings Pacific Northwest International Section of the Air and Waste Management Association Annual Meeting November 11-13, Bellevue, WA.

Ward, D.E. and Hardy, C.C. 1986. Advances in the characterization and control of emissions from prescribed broadcast fires of coniferous species logging slash on clearcut units. Final report, Project EPA DW12390110-0l-3/DOE DE-Al79-83BP12869, on file at Forest Science Laboratory, Seattle, WA. January.

Ward, D.E., Hardy, C.C., Sandberg, D.V., and Reinhardt, T.E. 1989. Mitigation of Prescribed Fire Atmospheric Pollution through Increased Utilization of Hardwoods, Piled Residues, and Long-Needled Conifers. Part III – Emission Characterization. Final Report to the Bonneville Power and US Department of Energy under IAG-DE-AI179-85BP18509 (PNW-85-423). USDA Forest Service, PNW Research Station. 110 pp.

Ward, Darold E.; Clements, Hubert B.; Nelson, Ralph M. 1980. Particulate matter emission factor modeling for fires in southeastern fuels. Proceedings Sixth Conference on Fire and Forest Metreorology, April 22-24, 1980, Seattle, WA. p. 276-284. https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/ward_et_al_1980.pdf

Weise, D. R., Ward, D. E., Paysen, T. E., and Koonce, A. L. 1991. Burning California chaparral- an exploratory study of some common shrubs and their combustion characteristics. International Journal Wildland Fire 1:153-158. doi.org/10.1071/WF9910153 https://www.frames.gov/documents/smoke/serdp/weise_et_al_1991.pdf

White, J.D. 1987. Emission rates of carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and benzo(a)pyrene from prescribed buring of fine southern fuels. Southeastern Forest Experiment Station Research Note SE-346. 8 p. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951d029969658

Yokelson, R. J., Goode, J. G., Ward, D. E., Susott, R. A., Babbitt, R. E., Wade, D. D., Bertschi, Isaac T., Griffith, D. W. T., and Hao, W. M. 1999. Emissions of formaldehyde, acetic acid, methanol, and other trace gases from biomass fires in North Carolina measured by airborne Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. Journal of Geophysical Research 104, D23: 30109-30125. doi.org/10.1029/1999JD900817 https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/1999JD900817