edible galls on sage

I found a reference to a type of edible gall that grows on sage plants in Crete, and is sold as a sweet in markets there. Can you tell me what species of sage that might be, and is it something we can grow in the Pacific Northwest? Will it develop tasty galls here?

It seems very likely that the species of sage is Salvia pomifera. That species name (‘fruit-like’) refers to the apple- or fruit-shaped galls. The webpage of Flora of Israel has a feature article by Professor Avinoam Danin on this type of Salvia that does indeed grow in Crete. He mentions another Cretan species that produces fruit-like gall structures, Salvia fruticosa.

Flowers of Crete (John Fielding and Nicholas Turland, Kew, 2005) describes these two common shrubby sages found in Crete. “They share similar habitats, pine woodland, olive groves, scrub, garrigue, and rocky places,” though S. fruticosa is mainly found in the lowlands, while S. pomifera is more montane. Salvia fruticosa (faskomilo in Greek) is used in herbal tea, but “both species produce globose stem galls, which are eaten raw (including the insect larvae inside) by Cretan children.” (The authors do not say why children–rather than adults?–prefer this treat!)

According to Greek horticulturist and Salvia expert Eleftherios Dariotis, “Salvia pomifera is the one that produces most galls and people like to eat them. Their taste is like a sagey apple and they are crunchy in texture. S.fruticosa produces galls as well, but not as often.”

In the Middle East, there is another species of sage that produces edible galls. Salvia dominica goes by the common name Bedouin peach, or khokh, because the galls it develops are fuzzy like the fruit.

The galls aroused curiosity among plant explorers in centuries past. 16th century French botanist Pierre Belon described them as “covered with hair and sweet and pleasant to the taste. They were collected at the beginning of May and sold by the people of Candie [Candia?] to neighboring villagers.” [Source: The American Naturalist, Volume 52 February-March 1918]

During his travels in Crete, the 17th/18th century French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort came across a sage he called ‘Salvia cretica frutescens pomifera,’ a shrubby Cretan sage that bore apple-like fruit. An article in Saturday Magazine (vol. 16, 1840) mentions his observation of large galls “caused by the punctures of insects; these galls are firm, fleshy, semi-transparent tumours, swelling out from the branches of the plant, and supposed to be produced in the same manner as oak apples, by the puncture of an insect of the Cynips genus. They form an article of ordinary sale in the markets, and are called sage-apples. When preserved with sugar, these apples are regarded as a great delicacy.”

Salvia pomifera will grow in USDA hardiness zones 7-10, and both Salvia fruticosa and Salvia dominica will grow in USDA hardiness zones 8-11. To me, that sounds like potentially marginal hardiness given our tendency for wet (Salvia-rotting!) winters.

I have a feeling that you would not have much luck in attracting the right species of Cynipid gall wasp to Pacific Northwest-grown Salvias. The Aulax species of gall wasp is what causes the galls found on sage species growing in the Mediterranean region. According to the Field Guide to Plant Galls of California and Other Western States by Ron Russo (University of California Press, 2006), the gall wasps which may affect Salvia species in California and other western states are Rhopalomyia species. The galls they form are tubular in shape, and not fruit-like in appearance. There is no documentation on their taste.

native gardens and supplemental watering

I am setting up a native plant garden in Seattle this fall. Since the plants I’m choosing are adapted to our dry summers, is it OK for my landscape to go without supplemental water next summer?

Expect that your new garden will still need some supplemental water next July and August. People often ask why it is necessary to water plants that can grow with just rainfall in the wild. Depending on the situation, though, it can be essential for several reasons. Our city gardens often have hot areas of paving nearby, and soil that’s compacted, sandy, or poor compared to forest or meadow soils. Wild plants spring up from seed or spread underground to where they can find water and other necessary conditions for their species, while the roots of transplants must suddenly support a whole plant in a new environment that is likely quite different than the native plant nursery where they were grown, and may also differ from the conditions for which they are ideally adapted. Climate change is a factor, too.

A great book that can help you with planning and maintaining landscapes with our native plants is April Pettinger and Brenda Constanzo’s Native Plants in the Coastal Garden. The authors emphasize the importance of siting your native plants well, in communities of plants that are suitable for the conditions you have. Their list of plants for dry places may be helpful to you if you are still choosing plants.

the fragrant beverage-producing willow

There’s a type of willow used traditionally in Iran to make a fragrant beverage. In Farsi, it’s called bid, and I think it’s also known as musk willow. I need to know what the species is, and I wonder if it will grow in the Seattle area.

Most sources I consulted confirm that musk willow or bid is Salix aegyptiaca. Encyclopaedia Iranica says “bid” is a general term for the genus Salix, but does identify “musk willow” as Salix aegyptiaca. The online version of W.J. Bean’s Hardy Trees and Shrubs: Temperate Woody Plants in Cultivation says the following:
“Native of S.E. Anatolia, S.E. Transcaucasia and N. Persia; introduced to the Botanic Garden at Innsbruck in 1874 by Dr Polak, doctor to the Shah of Persia, and in cultivation at Kew five years later. At one time a perfumed drink was made in Moslem lands from its male catkins, which were also sugared and eaten as a sweetmeat, and used for perfuming linen. For these it was cultivated from Egypt to Kashmir and central Asia, so the epithet aegyptiaca is not so inappropriate as it would otherwise seem to be.”

Salix aegyptiaca is featured in the February 2016 issue of the Royal Horticultural Society’s publication, The Garden in an article entitled “Willow the wish” by David Jewell. Since the article recommends it for gardens in England, where the climate is similar to ours here in the Pacific Northwest, it will probably thrive here in Seattle as well.

rose gall and the scotch broom gall mite

I work on a restoration site and this fall I have been noticing weird fuzzy growths on many of the Nootka roses (Rosa nutkana) growing there. Do you know what is causing this? And is it related to similar strange growths on all of the Scotch broom? In the case of the broom, it actually kills them completely—they turn brown or black, and their roots are pretty much non-existent, which makes them very easy to uproot (which is what we are trying to do). I just don’t want to lose the roses or other desirable plants on the site.

What you are describing on the roses sounds like mossy rose gall (Diplolepis rosae). Washington State University Extension’s HortSense page says that these galls which are caused by cynipid wasps will not harm the host plants. You could picky them off the roses, but that seems impractical in a restoration site, and besides they are fairly benign and attractive curiosities. The particular species of cynipid wasps which cause it are unlikely to affect plants which are outside the rose family.

Your other question about dying Cytisus scoparius (Scotch broom) is especially interesting. I think what you are seeing on those browned and blackened plants is also a gall, caused by the Scotch broom gall mite (Aceria genistae). This insect is apparently on the cutting edge of controlling invasive broom. According to this informational page from University of California Statewide Integrated Pest Management Program, the mite was first seen on broom plants in Tacoma, WA and Portland, OR in 2005. It has since spread through the Pacific Northwest. An abstract of an article entitled “The Scotch Broom Gall Mite: Accidental Introduction
to Classical Biological Control Agent?” (J. Andreas et al.) appeared in the 2011 XIII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. Studies are underway to see if the mite affects non-target plants such as lupine. For now, you can rejoice in the fact that the mites are curbing the growth and reproduction of the broom, and making your work a little bit easier!

overwintering tuberous begonias

Will Nonstop Begonias overwinter here in Seattle and do well in subsequent years? Mine are in a north-facing shaded area with good soil drainage.

According to the Sunset Western Garden Book (2007), it is possible but not always easy to overwinter tuberous begonias such as the ‘Nonstop’ series. Most people use pots and bring them into a cool, dry, dark environment (such as a garage) for the winter. Others put tubers in the ground but dig some in fall to overwinter in a cool shoebox full of sand. Sometimes they can survive our Seattle winters in the ground, but that is not a sure thing. For example, neighbors of mine lost their last winter despite a blanket of mulch they hoped would protect them. Freezing weather kills them, and the damp soil doesn’t do them any good either.

growing and caring for citrus indoors

I have a Eustis limequat, and it’s producing flowers. Should I be taking a brush and dusting pollen from one bloom to the other? Also, I’m growing it inside. Do I need any additional lighting? I have fluorescent lights as well as full-spectrum UVA/UVB lights that I can use. Someone told me I’d need to get really pricy calcium lights, or something similar.

All the resources I’ve found suggest that citrus flowers are self-pollinating with a very few exceptions. However, your limequat (x Citrofortunella floridana) is growing indoors, so pollination assistance from you will help. Alabama Cooperative Extension, in a publication no longer available online, describes citrus as generally self-fruitful.

Excerpt:
“With the exception of Clementine tangerine and certain tangerine hybrids such as Orlando tangelo, citrus trees are self-fruitful and do not require cross-pollination. Thus, self-fruitful types of citrus can be grown as single trees. Cross-pollination requires that two or more varieties bloom at the same time. Some varieties will not cross-pollinate each other. Satsuma and navel do not produce viable pollen and thus cannot be used for that purpose.”

I looked at several of our books on growing citrus to see if they mentioned any special lighting needs, and Success with Citrus Fruits by Sigrid Hansen-Catania (Merehurst, 1998) simply says that your artificial light source needs to provide 12 hours of light a day, if you do not have a position for the plant near a sunny window. She mentions “specially adapted fluorescent tubes which you can fix to the ceiling about 8-16 inches above the plants,” though she mentions it in the context of providing adequate light during winter months.

University of Missouri Extension has a general article on indoor lighting for plants.

Here is an excerpt from an article (no longer available) from Purdue University Horticulture specific to citrus: “Citrus foliage can adapt to the relatively low light levels typical of our homes. However, if flowers and fruit are what you’re after, you’ll need to give the plants as much light as possible. If natural light is inadequate, you can supplement with artificial lights. A combination of cool white and warm white florescent lights placed close to the plants will help, as will the special ‘grow lights’ that emit the wavelengths of light most important for plant growth. (…)

If citrus is kept indoors year-round, the plants will likely need a bit of pollination assistance when they do flower. Use an artist’s paintbrush or cotton swab to transfer pollen from one flower to another.”

The good news is that I don’t think you need to invest in any additional expensive lighting systems!

pruning and propagating Dracaena

My indoor Dracaena is getting too tall. I’d like to prune it, and maybe use the cuttings to start new plants. How do I do this?

You should be able to do both tasks. The Complete Houseplant Survival Manual by Barbara Pleasant (Storey, 2005) says “when plants become too tall, cut off the cane at any height. New leaf clusters will grow from just below where the cane was cut. You can cut sections into 6-inch pieces and root them like stem cuttings.”

You might also find this discussion from University of British Columbia Botanical Garden’s online forum useful.

Here is more information, from University of Florida, which describes how pruning will result in two or more branches forming where the pruning cut was made: “Cut one or two of the stems to a point where new foliage is needed.”

on growing tea plants

I am interested in growing tea plants. In particular, I am interested in these: Cyclopia intermedia (honeybush), Aspalathus linearis (rooibos), and Citrus aurantium (bergamot). Also, do you know which local nurseries might sell these plants?

For the first two plants, I consulted Cape Plants by Peter Goldblatt and John Manning (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2000). Cyclopia intermedia and other Cyclopia species (Honeybush) grow in southeast and southwest Africa in what is called “mountain fynbos” regions. The climate is similar to that of Mediterranean areas, so if your climate has wet winters and dry summers, there is a chance you may be able to grow this plant. The South African Honeybush Tea Association has more information about this plant as a source of tea.

Aspalathus linearis, or Rooibos, is found in South Africa from the Bokkeveld Mountains to the Cape Peninsula. The website PlantzAfrica has information about it that suggests it is not often grown in home gardens: “This is thought to be due to the difficulty in propagation by seed or root cuttings and in providing the optimal growing conditions for the plants. In order to grow Aspalathus linearis successfully, seeds must first be scarified and then planted in acid, sandy soils.” The Plants for a Future Database suggests that this plant would not grow with much success in a colder, wet winter climate.

The bergamot which is used to flavor Earl Grey tea goes by the botanical names Citrus aurantium, C. aurantium subspecies or variety bergamia, and Citrus bergamia. According to Purdue University’s New Crops web page, this tree is a native of Southeast Asia: “The sour orange flourishes in subtropical, near-tropical climates, yet it can stand several degrees of frost for short periods. Generally it has considerable tolerance of adverse conditions. But the Bergamot orange is very sensitive to wind and extremes of drought or moisture.” See also the following from University of California, Riverside’s Citrus Variety pages. The tree grows well in Italy and North Africa, but it may not do very well in the Pacific Northwest.

Of these three plants, the only one for which I found a nursery source (in California, not locally) on Plant Information Online was the bergamot Citrus. You may want to call your favorite local nurseries to ask if they ever carry this plant, but I suspect that most will not, as it is not likely to succeed in our climate. You might have better luck growing familiar herbs like chamomile and mint which can be used for tea. You could also make green, black, and oolong tea from the leaves of Camellia sinensis, a plant which will thrive here in Seattle, and should not be too difficult to find. According to Keith Possee, who manages the UW Medicinal Herb Garden, offers the following advice:
“The trick is to pick only two leaves and a bud in the spring flush of growth. If we lived in the tropics, home tea growers could be picking tea most or all of the year, but 48 degrees north latitude is not ideal.” The most important step to learn is how to roll the leaves. Keith recommends this University of Hawaii Extension document entitled Home-Processing Black and Green Tea by Dwight Sato, et al.

plants toxic to livestock

Could you recommend some good references with information about plants that are toxic to livestock, particularly to horses?

There are a number of resources which list plants that are toxic to animals, and specifically to horses. As you check the lists, keep in mind that just because a plant is not on the toxic list, one cannot assume it is non-toxic.

Here are links to some useful lists:

ASPCA Lists of Plants:

Nontoxic to Animals

Toxic to Horses

Cornell University Department of Animal Science: Plants Poisonous to Livestock (search by affected animal species)

Selected Poisonous Plants of the Pacific Northwest toxic to livestock, from Washington State University

Dr. Duke’s Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases, from
Agricultural Research Service: try searching by plant name. Highly technical, but shows what the active chemical properties are in various plants.

Reprint from Trailblazers magazine

Ten most poisonous plants affecting horses, from the editors of Equus magazine

The Miller Library also has the booklet entitled Commonly Cultivated and Native Oregon Plants Toxic to Domesticated Animals by La Rea Dennis et al., Pacific Western Research, 1990. It is organized by plant family, not by affected animals.

growing and propagating lupines

I moved to New Hampshire from Missouri and want to grow lupines.
Having purchased some plants, I have enjoyed many blooms. After the
bloom, the flower turns into what looks like a pod with seeds. Can I
replant those seeds in order to propagate them for next year, or when is
the best time to plant them? Also for the remaining foliage on the
plant, what should I do to maintain it? Continue to water it and give it
MiracleGro for nutrients?

According to the American Horticultural Society’s Plant Propagation edited by Alan Toogood (DK Publishing, 1999), lupines may be propagated from seed between early and mid-spring. (Other methods of propagation
include stem cuttings taken in mid- to late spring). Lupine seeds
require some special treatment, as described by the Sustainable Urban Landscape Information Series (formerly available online from University of Minnesota):

“Moisture is important to seed germination. Some seeds are protected by a
tough seed coat. Some must be soaked in water to soften the seed coat
prior to germinating. Other seeds must have their seed coat nicked or
pierced (scarified) in order to allow moisture to reach the seed, causing
it to expand and break through the seed coat; two examples are in the
legume family – sweet peas (Lathyrus species) require soaking, and lupine
(Lupinus species) require scarification.

The following information from University of Washington should apply to
your lupines, not just our native lupines. It suggests collecting seed from June to August, storing the seed in the pods inside paper bags, and then scarifying them prior to soaking and sowing (in spring or fall).

Lupines should do well in zones 3 to 8, depending on the species. More
information on growing hybrid lupines can be found here, including
suggestions on fertilizing. Choose a complete slow-release organic fertilizer instead
of synthetic fertilizers like MiracleGro, which may be too high in nitrogen.

When flowering is finished, you can cut the plants down to the ground, and you
may still see a second burst of growth. There is no need to water when the plant
is not in active growth. (In our Northwest climate, the leaves tend to
look mildewy by this time of year, and you would want to cut them back
anyway). Rainyside Gardeners, a Pacific Northwest website, has additional information.