Abstract:
This report aims to supplement our previous report (Yonge et al. 2016; WA-RD 816.3) that assessed copper and zinc adsorption to lignocellulosic filtration media using laboratory tests and field-scale column tests for urban stormwater remediation. The current project extends the species of wood materials that were investigated in the earlier study. We performed laboratory tests using Douglas-fir crumbles®, poplar crumbles®, tanoak crumbles®, lodgepole pine crumbles®, Ultra-char of poplar®, Ultra-char of alder®, and Ultra-char of Douglas-fir® to evaluate their ability to adsorb copper and zinc. The laboratory column test results indicated that the most efficient adsorption medium for both copper and zinc is ultra-char of poplar, followed by tanoak crumbles, poplar crumbles, ultra-char of Douglas-fir, Douglas-fir crumbles, lodgepole pine crumbles, and ultra-char of alder, in that order. However, the batch experiments showed that tanoak is the most efficient adsorption medium of the samples tested. Based on the summary results of both the column and batch experiments, among all the samples of wood crumbles and char, tanoak crumbles seem to be a better option for metal adsorption. One of the most important conclusions drawn from this project is that the surface areas of both wood crumbles and ultra-chars of different wood crumbles are highly relevant to their ability to adsorb copper and zinc. Building on our previous research, we found that surface area is a critical parameter for copper and zinc removal, and the role of functional groups is not as important as we had expected. Typically, chars have larger surface areas and fewer functional groups than wood crumbles. The presence of functional groups would favor metal adsorption when two materials share similar surface areas, which may explain the superior adsorption performance of raw wood crumbles over char that we reported in our previous report (Yonge et al. 2016).

Authors:
Chowdhury, I., Tian, Y., Shams, M., Wolcott, M., Dooley, J.

Keywords:
Stormwater, ferry terminals, filtration, copper, zinc, Washington State

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Abstract:
This report represents the third and final phase of a three-part effort aimed at providing Sustainable Design Guidelines for Washington State Ferry terminals, specifically addressing the efficacy for removal of copper and zinc using a biobased filter media both in laboratory and field conditions. This work supplements previous reports that detail design concepts in implementation of stormwater strategies to be deployed on waterfront structures. The Bainbridge Island ferry terminal staging area was selected as the field test site. A pilot scale adsorption column and submersible weir system was designed and constructed to fit within an existing stormwater vault. Laboratory and field scale continuous flow column studies were performed on raw and torrefied Douglas-fir Crumbles® (Psuedotsuga menziesii), charcoal (also referred to as biochar), and pea gravel to evaluate their effectiveness for adsorbing soluble forms of copper and zinc. Laboratory column tests indicated that the most efficient adsorption for both copper and zinc was non-torrefied wood, followed in order by pea gravel, torrefied wood, and charcoal. Increasing influent column flow by a factor of four resulted in no statistically significant difference in effluent metal concentration. A deicer flush performed on torrefied wood and charcoal columns following adsorption tests resulted in over an order of magnitude increase in column effluent copper and zinc concentration, indicating that bypassing the filtration system during deicer runoff events should be considered.

Authors:
Yonge, D., McIntyre, V., Smith, J., Norgaard, I., Wolcott, M.

Keywords:
Sustainability, ferry terminals,, stormwater, Washington state, runoff, filtration, copper, zinc

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Abstract:
The Sustainable Design Guidelines were developed in Phase I of this research program (WA-RD 816.1). Here we are reporting on the Phase II effort that “beta-tested” the Phase I Guidelines on example ferry terminal designs and refinements made to the tool. The specific objectives of this project are to: 1. Cite example WSF terminal projects that would serve as candidates for assessing the Sustainable Design Guidelines, 2. Compile and analyze site and resource attributes influencing the design needs, 3. Develop a “20% design” for each of the example terminals, 4. Refine the Draft Sustainable Design Guideline, 5. Develop preliminary data on the efficacy of sample stormwater design solutions, 6. Develop a database tool for GRIP, the proposed Green Rating Integration Platform for WSF. This project represents the second phase in a three-part effort. The final component will develop and potentially demonstrate specific solutions that present unique opportunities will be deployed in Phase III.

Authors:
Wolcott, M.P., Poor, C., Haselbach, L.

Keywords:
Sustainability, ferry terminals, stormwater, LID

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Abstract:
In an effort to assist the developers of the terminal design manual in potentially addressing sustainable design issues, the overall goal is to produce Sustainable Design Guidelines that will specifically address the unique needs and requirements of ferry terminals. In support of the development of these Sustainable Design Guidelines, the specific objectives of this project are to: 1. Review applicable sustainable design guidelines and rating systems. 2. Assess specific needs as perceived by WSF Terminal Engineering staff. 3. Compile standards and metrics potentially applicable to WSF terminals with a focus on materials use, site design, and consequences. 4. Prepare a draft Sustainable Design Guideline. 5. Provide specific methods to address stormwater quality and quantity using LID methods. 6. Provide specific recommendations where composite materials may provide unique solutions to material needs. The outcomes of the project are expected to be complementary to the current SMS and other environmental documentation in place, or under consideration at WSF.

Authors:
Wolcott, M.P., Poor, C., Haselbach, L.

Keywords:
Sustainability, ferry terminals, stormwater, LID

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Abstract:
Low impact development (LID) is an approach to stormwater management that seeks to mimic the natural hydrologic functions of stormwater runoff prior to development. In general, LID techniques emphasize infiltration and evapotranspiration to remove pollutants and attenuate flows from urban runoff. As the largest land developer in Washington State, the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) is interested in better understanding the challenges of applying LID techniques to a highway setting and learning ways to address those challenges. This report identifies barriers to implementing LID approaches in a state roadway setting and provides recommendations on how WSDOT can overcome those barriers. This research question stems from a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System municipal stormwater permit issued by the Washington State Department of Ecology (Ecology) to WSDOT in February 2009. Barriers were identified through a literature review, Ecology LID advisory committee meeting discussions, and interviews with people who are involved in stormwater management in a variety of capacities throughout Washington state.

Authors:
Miccio, C.E.

Keywords:
Low impact development, LID, stormwater, stormwater management

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Abstract:
Stormwater from impervious surfaces generally has to be treated by on or more best management practices (BMP) before being discharged into streams or rivers. Compost use for treating stormwater has increased in recent years as trials show that compost amended soils and compost blankets prevent erosion and improve water quality. Most of the trials to date have focused on applications where the stormwater sheet flows across a compost amended area or into a retention basin amended with compost. These types of installations are applicable to many locations, but there is a need for an end-of-pipe treatment that can handle concentrated flows. This is particularly true in roadway projects that are linear in nature and cut across land features and go from cut to fill sections frequently. Bioswales are an approved BMP to remove nutrients from stormwater and are widely used in highway construction to move and treat stormwater. However, bioswales are not currently approved for dissolved metal removal from stormwater. Compost amended soils have shown an increased capacity to remove dissolved metals from stormwater. This research will evaluate the effectiveness of a compost amended bioswale to remove dissolved metals from highway runoff. This thesis details the steps necessary for the site selection, design, and implementation of a stormwater BMP field test.

Authors:
Maurer, M.

Keywords:
Stormwater, bioswale, compost, water quality, monitoring

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Abstract:
Heavy metals in highway runoff continue to be a national concern for most transportation agencies including the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT). In this project, a comprehensive critical review of the literature and data associated with heavy metals in stormwater runoff from highway settings was conducted to assist WSDOT in better understanding the indicators associated with elevated concentrations in response to suggestions that locations for dissolved metals treatment BMPs are to be determined based solely on Average Annual Daily Traffic. Results found that multiple regression models have been used to predict contaminant concentrations with some success, however there are still considerable uncertainties related to the predictions due to the complexity and variability of highway settings. Furthermore, studies indicate that multiple linear regression models are only applicable in the geographic region and range of conditions represented by the original data set. Regional data necessary to populate and substantiate such a model for the State of Washington do not currently exist. As such, additional runoff quality and ancillary information across a variety of Washington highway AADT settings would be needed to improve the reliability associated with locating BMPs for treating metals contamination. In discussing these uncertainties with WSDOT and the department of Ecology, it was determined that a multiple regression model was not feasible.

Authors:
Barber,M. E., Brown,M. G., Lingenfelder,K. M., Yonge,D. R.

Keywords:
stormwater, average annual daily traffic loading, water quality

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Abstract:
This report describes an approach for estimating infiltration rates for dry wells that are constructed using standard configurations developed by the Washington State Department of Transportation. The approach was developed recognizing that the performance of these dry wells depends upon a combination of subsurface geology, groundwater conditions, and dry well geometry. The report focuses on dry wells located in unconsolidated geologic materials

Authors:
Massman,J. W.

Keywords:
Dry wells, infiltration rates, hydrogeologic, systems, stormwater

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Abstract:
WSDOT is considering the use of Polyacrylamide (PAM) flocculant to reduce stormwater runoff turbidity at highway construction sites. This research project conducted a testing program to determine the dissolution rates of PAM introduced to simulated stormwater flow by using an experimental geotextile "teabag" dosing system.The testing program simulated "teabags" placed in 2 configurations: 1) suspended in a pipe culvert, and 2) placed in a standard catchbasin insert. The flume in the Saint Martin's College School of Engineering Hydraulics Laboratory was used to conduct a full-scale simulation of flow regimes for these 2 configurations.Five types of geotextile fabric, five types of PAM flocculant, and ten configurations of teabag placement were tested. Empirical relationships between the dissolution rate and flow were found by regressing the test results.PAM dissolution rate was found to vary as an inverse power function with flow rate, and directly with the amount of PAM introduced into the flow stream. The type of geotextile fabric and the type of PAM flocculant had only a minor effect on dissolution rate.

Authors:
McCormack,T., House,K.

Keywords:
polyacrylamide (PAM), flocculant, stormwater, turbidity, highway construction, dissolution rate, geotextile, research

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Abstract:
The Washington State Department of Transportation designs, operates, and maintains stormwater detention basins for flood control. Initiatives by the Washington State Department of Ecology have prioritized the consideration of stormwater quality as well as quantity for stormwater treatment. Modification of existing stormwater detention basins could afford an efficient mechanism for addressing water quality by enhancing contaminant removal.A scale model of a typical basin was constructed to investigate contaminant removal capabilities of existing detention basins. A simulated highway stormwater runoff was fonnulated and applied in scale model detention basin testing over a range of flow rates. Four coagulants were evaluated for their ability to enhance removal of sediment and metals.Coagulant addition resulted in significant increases in metal removal over the range of stormwater flow rates studied. The greatest improvement was observed at the higher flow rates. Enhanced metals removal resulted from increased removal of small particles and their sorbed metals. Further improvement in contaminant removal was observed following the addition of an influent baffle, resulting in improved basin hydraulic characteristics which increased solids detention and minimized short circuiting.

Authors:
Price, F., Yonge, D.R.

Keywords:
Stormwater, sediment removal, contaminaint removal, highway runoff

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Abstract:
The Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) designs, operates, and maintains stormwater detention basins. These basins are used to control storm water runoff from highways, thereby controlling flows in down gradient areas. Historically, storm water basin design has been based solely on hydraulic considerations. Recent initiatives by the Washington State Department of Ecology have indicated that storm water quality has become a high priority. Consequently, future design must consider water quality as well as flood control. To have control of the variables associated with removal efficiencies (flow rate, contaminant type, contaminant concentrations, particle size distribution, and basin configuration) a scale model of a typical detention basin was constructed. Experiments to determine removal efficiencies for suspended solids with diameters <75 micrometers were conducted and the results were compared with the Type 1 sedimentation theory for an ideal basin. Preliminary investigations into the removal efficiencies for Pb, Zn, Cd, and Cu were performed at one flow rate and optimized piping configuration. The removal of suspended solids range from 65-80%. Type 1 sedimentation theory for an ideal basin yielded good predictions of sediment removal. This implies that Type 1 sedimentation theory could be used to estimate sediment removal in full scale systems under similar conditions. Care should be taken when predictions are required at high-surface overflow rates or highway runoff that contains a significant fraction of small particles. The removal of metals ranges from 28-40% indicating that removal of smaller particles is necessary to achieve better removal efficiencies for metals.

Authors:
Yonge, D.R., Cole, W.H.

Keywords:
Stormwater, sediment removal, contaminaint removal, highway runoff

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Abstract:
The Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT)/University of Washington Highway Runoff Water Quality research project, conducted from 1977 to 1982, produced a number of results of potential use to WSDOT. An effort was required to implement these results in the Department\'s procedures. One phase of implementation completed previously involved preparation of a guide for assessing the impacts of operating highways on aquatic ecosystems and training WSDOT personnel in its use. The present phase involved formulating decision criteria in a number of water quality problem areas of concern to WSDOT and determining the need for revisions to department documents for consistency with the research results and the new criteria. The results of this phase are presented in a two volume implementation manual and a separate document listing the suggested modifications to four existing WSDOT manuals. Volume 1 of the implementation manual state the criteria, which were developed for: 1) identification of waters potentially sensitive to impact by operating highways; 2) the use of vegetated drainage courses to treat highway runoff; 3) the use of retention/detention facilities for highway stormwater drainage; 4) disposal of ditch cleaning spoils; 5) the use of woodwaste fills for highway construction; 6) highway sanding; 7) dilution of highway runoff in a receiving water; 8) highway cleaning; and 9) stream channel modification for highway construction. Volume 2 presents the basis of each criterion listed in volume 1, including references to the research results and other literature, the rezoning followed, development of equations, etc.

Authors:
Horner, R.R.

Keywords:
Environmental, highway, stormwater, water pollution, criteria, environmental impact, mitigation, Washington state, research implementation

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Abstract:
The Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT)/University of Washington Highway Runoff Water Quality research project, conducted from 1977 to 1982, produced a number of results of potential use to WSDOT. An effort was required to implement these results in the Department\\\'s procedures. One phase of implementation completed previously involved preparation of a guide for assessing the impacts of operating highways on aquatic ecosystems and training WSDOT personnel in its use. The present phase involved formulating decision criteria in a number of water quality problem areas of concern to WSDOT and determining the need for revisions to department documents for consistency with the research results and the new criteria. The results of this phase are presented in a two volume implementation manual and a separate document listing the suggested modifications to four existing WSDOT manuals. Volume 1 of the implementation manual state the criteria, which were developed for: 1) identification of waters potentially sensitive to impact by operating highways; 2) the use of vegetated drainage courses to treat highway runoff; 3) the use of retention/detention facilities for highway stormwater drainage; 4) disposal of ditch cleaning spoils; 5) the use of woodwaste fills for highway construction; 6) highway sanding; 7) dilution of highway runoff in a receiving water; 8) highway cleaning; and 9) stream channel modification for highway construction. Volume 2 presents the basis of each criterion listed in volume 1, including references to the research results and other literature, the rezoning followed, development of equations, etc.

Authors:
Horner, R.R.

Keywords:
Environmental, highway, stormwater, water pollution, criteria, environmental impact, mitigation, Washington state, research implementation

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Abstract:
This report present the final form of the Washington State Highway runoff pollutant loading model, incorporating data from the five years of study. It also features a probabilistic analysis of concentration and loading data designed to express the chance of exceeding specific values in a given case. Other topics include further assessment of the toxicity of highway runoff and its causes and mitigation.

Authors:
Little, M.L., Horner, R.R., Mar, B.W.

Keywords:
Analysis, assessment, data, highway, highway runoff, ITS, mitigation, model, pollutant loading, runoff, stormwater, Toxicity, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
The impacts of storm water runoff from Washington State freeways on aquatic ecosystems were investigated through a series of bioassays utilizing algae, zooplankton and fish.Algae and zooplankton were adversely affected by the soluble fraction of the runoff, while suspended solids caused high mortalities of rainbowtrout fry . In addition,. BOD 5 values similar to those reported in the storm water literature were measured; however, there were indications that results were influenced by toxicity to microbial populations.

Authors:
Portele, G., Mar, B.W., Horner, R.R., Welch, E.

Keywords:
Algae, biochemical oxygen, biomass, control, Demand, fish, freeway, heavy metals, highway, highway runoff, impact, impacts, Interim, metals, population, runoff, stormwater, suspended solids, Toxicity, transport, Washington, Washington state, Water Pollutants, Washington State Monitoring, zooplankton

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Abstract:
A highway storm water runoff pollutant loading. model has been developed based on results from con3posire sampling of approximately 600 storms at nine locations in the State of Washington over five years. The model expresses total suspended solids (TSS) loading in proportion to the product of highway segment length, average runoff coefficient, and vehicles traveling during storm periods. It was dem-onstrated that loadings of contaminants such as chemical oxygen demand, nutrients and trace metals could be estimated from TSS loadings using ratios derived from the data, The model described was developed and validated for assessing total loadings over a time span encompassing a number of storms (monthly or annually). To predict pollutant concentrations and loadings in runoff from a given storm, cumulative distributions were plotted and analyzed to determine the probability of exceeding specific concentration and loading values in a given case. Bioassay studies using highway runoff indicated toxicity to aquatic life when elevated metals deposition from high traffic volumes (in excess of 10,000 -20,000 vehicles per day) or high metals concentrations in rainfall caused runoff concentrations to exceed lethal levels. Draining highway runoff through grass channels 60 meters in length greatly reduced TSS and metals concentrations and the consequent toxic effects. The major product of this research is a guide to assessing and mitigating the impacts of highway runoff to receiving waters.

Authors:
Mar, B.W., Horner, R.R., Spyridakis, D.E., Welch, E.B.

Keywords:
Assessment, Channel, Chemical, Concentrations, data, demand, deposition, developed, highway, highway runoff, impact, impacts, Loadings, Highway runoff, metals, mitigation, model, models, pollutant loading, Pollutants, quality, rainfall, research, runoff, sampling, span, stormwater, suspended solids, Toxicity, traffic, traffic volumes, volume, Washington, Washington state, water quality

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