Abstract:
This research was Phase III of field investigations carried out over 12 years at a test section in southwest Washington State in an effort to quantify the contribution of geotextile separators to the long-term performance of pavement sections. Five different geotextile separators, as well as a control (soil-only) section, were installed in a test section covering two lanes with different base course thicknesses on a low volume but heavily loaded rural highway west of Bucoda, Wash. Phase I evaluated the performance of the separators during construction. Phases II and III were conducted to evaluate the performance of the separators 5 and 12 years after construction, respectively. Field and laboratory tests were conducted on the subgrade, granular base materials, and the geotextiles as part of the effort to correlate the performance of the pavement section to the presence of the geotextile separators. Falling weight deflectometer (FWD) testing was also performed at the site as part of the effort to quantify the performance of the pavement section. The laboratory tests indicated that the geotextiles successfully performed their separation function over the 12-year period. However, the soil-only sections had a minimal amount of intermixing at the base course/subgrade interface, indicating that the separation benefits of geotextiles may not be realized under relatively thick pavement sections. Field density tests indicated that the density of the subgrade in the sections with a geotextile generally increased between construction and the first field investigation, whereas the density of the soil-only sections remained about the same. Similarly, the FWD tests showed that the most significant increase in the subgrade moduli occurred in the first few months following construction. However, the soil-only sections exhibited behavior similar to the sections with geotextiles during the FWD testing, suggesting that for the relatively thick pavement sections, incorporation of geotextiles may not have provided a significant contribution to the overall performance of the section over the 12-year period. Some of the FWD results did suggest that geotextiles might contribute to an increase in the base course modulus over time.

Authors:
Collins,B. M., Holtz,R. D.

Keywords:
base, behavior, benefit, benefits, construction, control, density, falling weight deflectometer, field investigations, geotextile, geotextile separators, highway, materials, moduli, pavement, pavement performance, pavement section, research, rural, separators, subgrade, tests, volume, Washington, Washington state, weight, performance

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External Links: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/595.1.pdf http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/500/595.1.htm

Abstract:
This report documents the moldeling strategy and associated verification which permits analysis of multiple PCC plain jointed slabs. Several subbase/soil layers below the slabs and separation of the slab and base layer are considered. Load effects include those associated with both multiple tire and linear temperature gradients. A technique for modeling aggregate interlock shear transfer across PCC pavement joints is developed and verified. The overall development is contained in the computer program EverFE. The computer program uses a graphical user interface which aids its use.

Authors:
Davids,W. G., Turkiyyah,G. M., Mahoney,J. P.

Keywords:
aggregate, aggregate interlock, analysis, base, computer, computer program, developed, development, EverFE, finite element, Finite elements, ITS, Joints, joints load transfer, modeling, pavement, pavements, PCC, permits, program, rigid pavement, temperature, tire

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Abstract:
The major objectives of this study were to examine: (1) the types of recycled materials that are appropriate and feasible as alternative paving materials such as glass and tires; and (2) the types of recycled materials, such as mixed-plastics and compost, that can be utilized in all types of transportation applications other than pavements. Seven key products are investigated: tires; glass; asphalt concrete fly ash; compost; mixed plastics; and sign stock. Performance and cost data for pavements is documented for both in-state and nationwide applications. The national experience \'with the use of waste glass as an additive to asphalt concrete and its use in unbound base material is so highlighted. Programs for experimental use of recycled material are outlined. Recommendations for staffing and program changes to deal with recycling are also discussed.

Authors:
Swearigen,D. L., Jackson,N. C.

Keywords:
additive, Alternative, applications, asphalt, asphalt concrete, base, base materials, concrete, construction, cost, data, experimental, fly ash, Glasphalt, highway, highway construction, ITS, materials, objectives, pavement, pavements, performance, program, recycled ACP, recycling, Rubber-asphalt, tire, tires, transportation

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Abstract:
A short, one year performance evaluation was made of four crack sealing products. The products: (1) CRF manufactured by the Golden Bear Division of Witco Chemical Corporation; (2) Flex-a-Fill manufactured by Deery Oil; (3) RoadSaver 221 manufactured by Crafco Incorporated; and (4) a sand slurry mixture designed by the Washington State Department of Transportation.The two rubber-asphalt products, Flex-a-Fill and RoadSaver 221, performed better that the other two products, which used an emulsified cement as a base.

Authors:
Erickson,D. E.

Keywords:
base, crack sealing, effectiveness, emulsified asphalt, evaluation, mixture, performance, performance evaluation, Rubber-asphalt, transportation, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
Road maintenance is characterized as the continuing care of the roadway and providing for its intended use until such time as needed improvements are identified and undertaken. Within the scope of recurrent and deferred maintenance activites, opportunities are identified to improve cost effectiveness of surfacing and ditch maintenance and reduce future capital improvements.The selection of equipment, materials and procedure is either a commitment to long-term transportation system goals or they create future constraints. The author shows how subgrade and base course damage can be detected and corrected while avoiding actions that add costs or merely hide the problems; use of geotextiles may benefit road conditions but interfere with future maintenance; selection of dust palliatives may either increase or decrease future costs; basic equipment types and limitations affect maintenance prescriptions; good operating practices improve productiona and protect equipment; some historic practices increase the risk of equipment damage; drainage affects road stability and serviceability; to reshape or smooth blade surfacing and clean roadside ditches; an effective maintenance management system helps identify and prioritize needed improvements.Planning, scheduling and performing roadside ditch, travelway and shoulder maintenance requires knowledge and expertis to be successfully and economically accomplished. Basic maintenance approaches and concepts are suggested and new considerations proposed for aggregate, earth and native surfaced roads.

Authors:
Strombom,R. D.

Keywords:
aggregate, base, blading, damage, ditch cleaning drainage, geotextile, goals, grading, maintenance equipment, maintenance management, objectives palliatives (dust), planning, scheduling, stabilization, subgrade

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Abstract:
This study investigated the feasibility of eliminating endblocks from pretensioned continuos bridge girders. The removal of endblocks is estimated to reduce girder costs by 5 to 10 percent. The girders studied were the Washington State Department of Transportation\'s \"Series 14\". These girders are characterized by 5 inch thick webs and are prestressed with both harped and straight 1/2 inch diameter grade 270 stands. Previous research had recommended the elimination of endblocks for simple span bridges. This study dealt with continuous bridges.The research consisted test and a destructive laboratory test. The field test was used identify bases for the destructive testing. \"Series14 \" girder with endblocks and \"Series 60\" girders without endblocks were instrumented with strain gages and monitored from the time they manufactured to the time thel oads were tested on the bridge. The laboratory test was performed with a balanced cantilever arrangement using two \"14\" girders without without endblocks. The joint at the support was made continuous by providing deck reinforcement in a manner similar to reinforcing details used by WSDOT. Concentrated incrementally applied at a distance of 13 ft.10 inches from the continuous support. The modified girders performed effectively under applied loads. Therefore, endblocks may be removedfrom continuous Series \"14\" girders with normal diaphragms. The study recommends that one \"Series 14\" continuous girder without endblocks be designed and monitored through the various stages ofconstruction and service in another bridge.

Authors:
Itani,R., Hiremath,G. S., Vasisth,U.

Keywords:
base, bridge, bridges, concrete, construction, cost, costs, Deck, design, diaphragms, endblocks, field test, girders, loads, prestressed, prestressed concrete, Prestressing, pretensioned, reinforcement, research, span, transportation, Washington, Washington state, WSDOT

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Abstract:
A side bearing block foundation is used to resist overturning moments and lateral forces. Theoretical and experimental investigations were made to determine the ultimate moment capacity of a reinforced concrete footing subjected to vertical and horizontal loads and an overturning moment. The theoretical ultimate moment capacity was assumed to occur when the ultimate soil resistance was reached along the side bearing walls. It was found the resultant friction force at the base of the foundation greatly influenced the foundation to resist an overturning moment. The experimental ultimate moment capacity was determined from a deflection curve obtained from field data. A theoretical ultimate moment capacity was determined with the use of a finite el computer The results each of the three determinations were in acceptable agreement. Recommendations for further are made.

Authors:
Sorensen,H., Toreh,R.

Keywords:
base, computer, concrete, data, experimental, finite element, footing, forces, foundation, foundations, friction, loads, overturning, piles, reinforced concrete, resistance, soil, soil mechanics, soil pressure, stability, walls

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Abstract:
The pavement structure of SR 12 between Montesano and Elma, Washington was evaluated for the proposed heavy loads associated with construction of the Satsop power plant. Information used in evaluating SR-12 resulted from two sources which included field studies conducted by the Washington State Department of Transportation and development of various material strength parameters by the University of Washington. These data were used to model the pavement structure as a layered elastic system. By use of this analysis procedure, the stresses, strains, and deflections were estimated for the expected range of loading conditions. The results indicate that the most probable amount of damage (fatigue and rutting) expected for the non-cement treated base structural sections is less that one to two percent of available pavement life for the "expected" loading condition. An increase in either or both the trailer wheel load and pavement temperature will act to produce greater losses in pavement life. It is estimated that the tensile stresses in the cement treated base may exceed the tensile strength of this material.

Authors:
Mahoney,J. P., Tsunetta,Jerrold Y., Terrel,Ronald L.

Keywords:
analysis, base, condition, construction, damage, data, development, fatigue, highway, loads, materials, model, pavement, Pavement Evaluation, Materials Characterization, Layered Elastic System, Failure Criteria, Heavy Loads, pavement life, pavement temperature, strains, strength, stresses, System, temperature, transportation, Washington, Washington state, wheel load

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Abstract:
Velocity and nutrient studies at 12 sites in Western Washington streams indicated that 50 cm/sec is the critical average current velocity where the productive base of the food web is impacted. Swiftly flowing streams rich in nutrients should not be slowed to this value, and slowly flowing streams should not be altered to have velocities greater than this value.

Authors:
Horner,R. R., Welch,E. B.

Keywords:
base, velocity, nutrients, streams, Washington State, Aquatic Ecosystem, Periphyton, Washington

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Abstract:
This report reflects a year of calms with little addition to the data base. Pressure transducers were placed and an analytical scheme is reported. This scheme was subsequently used in the final work.

Authors:
Brown,C. B.

Keywords:
Annual, base, bridge, data, fatigue, maintenance, pressure, reliability, wind

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Abstract:
Forty-eight bridge decks were investigated for deterioration using visual , mechanical , electrical and chemical techniques. Data from the various techniques and the techniques themselves were compared and evaluated, resulting data base for Washington's bridges and recommendations for efficient condition determinations. Of the thirty-seven bridges for which all four types of inspection could be accomplished, twenty-nine were deteriorating as evidenced by delaminated concrete, and only two had non-deteriorating scores for all four techniques. None of the investigative techniques used in the project have been shown able to predict deck deterioration problems six to eight years in advance, our desired time period for project planning. The mechanical technique, commonly referred to as the "chain drag", is the method recommended for continued use by bridge inspection crews. Forty-eight bridge decks were investigated for deterioration using visual, mechanical, electrical and chemical techniques.

Authors:
Demich,G. F.

Keywords:
base, bridge, bridge deck, bridge decks, bridges, Chloride ion, delamination, half-cell potential, de-icing salt, Galvaic corrosion, concrete cover, bridge deck deterioration, concrete, condition, data, deck, deterioration, inspection, planning, Washington

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Abstract:
In many parts of the world, the design of flexible pavement is still based on empirical methods which have developed from engineering experience. These empirical methods cannot be extrapolated beyond their limits without full scale trials to prove their applicability. In recent years, however, the increase of traffic, both in volume and axle loads, has led to the failure of many roads previously considered well designed. For this reason, therefore, researchers realized that a closer look at the pavement materials was desirable in order to develop a rational design procedure. Due to the complexity of characterizing pavement materials, and the limitations of instrumentation, much of the reported work offered little help in changing design practice. This is, perhaps, due to many simplifying assumptions which had to be introduced in the experimental procedure as well as the interpretation of the test results. Recently, however, there has been a sharp advancement in test instrumentation and an outstanding progress in processing the experimental results. This has been reflected through many fine investigations and has increased the demand for more improvements. An asphalt pavement is a complex structure whose function is to provide a suitable surface for a highway, an airport, or other off-highway facility. The load of a vehicle or an aircraft is transmitted through the multilayered system of processed materials which have different mechanical properties. The stress distribution within this system is highly complex and to a large extent is dependent on the relative stiffnesses of the individual layers.

Authors:
Terrel,Ronald L., Awad,S.

Keywords:
asphalt, asphalt pavement, axle, base, behavior, demand, design, developed, experimental, facilities, fine, highway, improvement, loads, materials, methods, pavement, stiffness, stresses, System, traffic, volume

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Abstract:
The purpose of this study was threefold: (1) Develop empirical equivalencies from all four rings, (2) develop a design method for overlays based on field deflections; and (3) evaluate the validity of data obtained from instrumentations in terms of n-layer elastic theory and then develop theoretical equivalencies.This was done. Field equivalencies were developed and they indicated that superiority of the treated base materials over the untreated. A design method was developed which could be used for predicting when an overlay was needed and what thickness was needed to withstand certain equivalent wheel loads and deflections.Using computer programs for n-layer elastic theory developed by Chevron Research Company, deflection stresses and strains were computed and compared with field data. Assumptions about the material behavior and condition were made based on laboratory data obtained from The Asphalt Institute and field knowledge, and were used to help predict the behavior of pavements. The results were encouraging and indicate that field measurements generally were comparable with elastic layer theory predictions. This will help to develop and modify existing design limits for stresses, strains and deflection for future work.Equivalencies based on theoretical deflections, stresses and strains indicate the difficulty of assigning precise values. These values also indicate the superiority of treated materials over the untreated materials.

Authors:
Krukar,M., Cook,J. C.

Keywords:
analysis, asphalt, base, base materials, behavior, computer, computer program, condition, data, design, equivalencies, evaluation, experimental, loads, materials, overlay, overlays, pavement, pavements, prediction, program, research, strains, stresses, volume, wheel load

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Abstract:
Three different kinds of base material of varying base thicknesses were tested at the Washington State University Test Track on Ring #3 during the fall of 1967 and the spring of 1968. Twelve 18-foot test sections consisting of 4.5, 7.0, 9.5 and 12 inches of untreated crushed rock surfacing top course base; 3.0, 5.0, and 7.0 and 9.0 inches of emulsion treated crushed surfacing top course base; and 0.0, 2.0, 3.5 and 5.0 inches of special non-fractured screened aggregate asphalt treated base, covered by a uniform 3.0-inch thick Class "B" asphalt concrete wearing course were tested during this period. This pavement structure was built on a clay-silt subgrade soil.Instrumentation consisted of moisture tensiometers, strain gages, pressure cells, LVDT gages and thermocouples for measuring moisture, strain, stress, dynamic deflections and temperatures. Benkleman beam readings were taken.The testing period revealed that the fall failure modes were different from the spring failures. The fall failure patter started from transverse cracks in the thin sections which developed into alligator cracking patterns. These cracks appeared after a period of cold weather and heavy rains followed by a warming period. It seems that thermal and mechanical loads were responsible for the fall failures on the thin sections. The spring failures were very rapid and sudden and were due to environmental factors which led to saturated subgrade, thus resulting in poor bearing capacity. Punching shear was the failure mode. The thickest sections survived without cracks but developed severe rutting. Examination revealed that these ruts extended into the subgrade and that fatigue cracking was developing on the bottom of the bases.Comparison of the results with those obtained from Ring# 2, which was similar in base materials and thickness, show that they were similar in many respects. This indicates that the test track is capable of replicating results and is a reliable research instrument.Equivalencies were developed for the different materials. On this basis the special aggregate asphalt treated base was superior to the emulsion treated and untreated crushed rock bases in that order. These results were comparable to those obtained from test Ring #2.Maximum values for static and dynamic deflections, strains and stresses for different times and temperatures were developed. The lateral position of the dual tires with respect to the gage severely affected the strain, stresses and deflection values. Temperature also caused variations in the measurements. Spring instrument readings for static and dynamic deflections, strain and stress show increased values by as much as 2 to 4 times of those obtained in the fall. Spring subgrade conditions probably are responsible for these differences.Ring #3 series operational time was twice that of Ring #2 and sustained four times the wheel load applications. Construction and testing environmental conditions were superior to those for Ring #2 and hence contributed to the longer test period. This points out that environmental factors are very important in pavement life.

Authors:
Krukar,M.

Keywords:
aggregate, Alligator Cracking, applications, asphalt, asphalt concrete, base, base materials, bearing capacity, Benkleman beam, concrete, condition, construction, cracking, dual tires, environmental, experimental, fatigue, fatigue cracking, loads, materials, pavement, pavement life, pressure, pressure cell, rain, research, research at the WSU, strains, stresses, subgrade, temperature, test track, tire, tires, volume, Volume No.4, Washington, Washington state, wheel load

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Abstract:
Three different kinds of base material of varying base thicknesses were tested at the Washington State University Test Track on Ring #3 during the fall of 1967 and the spring of 1968. Twelve 18-foot test sections consisting of 4.5, 7.0, 9.5 and 12 inches of untreated crushed rock surfacing top course base; 3.0, 5.0, and 7.0 and 9.0 inches of emulsion treated crushed surfacing top course base; and 0.0, 2.0, 3.5 and 5.0 inches of special non-fractured screened aggregate asphalt treated base, covered by a uniform 3.0-inch thick Class "B" asphalt concrete wearing course were tested during this period. This pavement structure was built on a clay-silt subgrade soil.Instrumentation consisted of moisture tensiometers, strain gages, pressure cells, LVDT gages and thermocouples for measuring moisture, strain, stress, dynamic deflections and temperatures. Benkleman beam readings were taken.The testing period revealed that the fall failure modes were different from the spring failures. The fall failure patter started from transverse cracks in the thin sections which developed into alligator cracking patterns. These cracks appeared after a period of cold weather and heavy rains followed by a warming period. It seems that thermal and mechanical loads were responsible for the fall failures on the thin sections. The spring failures were very rapid and sudden and were due to environmental factors which led to saturated subgrade, thus resulting in poor bearing capacity. Punching shear was the failure mode. The thickest sections survived without cracks but developed severe rutting. Examination revealed that these ruts extended into the subgrade and that fatigue cracking was developing on the bottom of the bases.Comparison of the results with those obtained from Ring# 2, which was similar in base materials and thickness, show that they were similar in many respects. This indicates that the test track is capable of replicating results and is a reliable research instrument.Equivalencies were developed for the different materials. On this basis the special aggregate asphalt treated base was superior to the emulsion treated and untreated crushed rock bases in that order. These results were comparable to those obtained from test Ring #2.Maximum values for static and dynamic deflections, strains and stresses for different times and temperatures were developed. The lateral position of the dual tires with respect to the gage severely affected the strain, stresses and deflection values. Temperature also caused variations in the measurements. Spring instrument readings for static and dynamic deflections, strain and stress show increased values by as much as 2 to 4 times of those obtained in the fall. Spring subgrade conditions probably are responsible for these differences.Ring #3 series operational time was twice that of Ring #2 and sustained four times the wheel load applications. Construction and testing environmental conditions were superior to those for Ring #2 and hence contributed to the longer test period. This points out that environmental factors are very important in pavement life.

Authors:
Krukar,M., Cook,J. C.

Keywords:
aggregate, Alligator Cracking, applications, asphalt, asphalt concrete, base, base materials, bearing capacity, Benkleman beam, concrete, condition, construction, cracking, dual tires, environmental, equivalencies, experimental, fatigue, fatigue cracking, loads, materials, pavement, pavement life, pressure, pressure cell, rain, research, research at the WSU, soil, strains, stresses, subgrade, temperature, test track, tire, tires, volume, Washington, Washington state, wheel load

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Abstract:
This report describes the results obtained from Experimental Ring No. 2, the first ring of a three-ring tests series on treated bases at the Washington State University Test Track. This experiment was concerned with studying the effects of controlled wheel load repetitions on untreated, emulsion, and specialaggregate asphalt - treated bases of four varying thicknesses. Construction, instrumentation, results , and conclusions are described and drawn. Benkelman beam, LVDT, strain gages, pressure cells and moisture tensiometers were used to measure deflections , strains , stresses and moisture. Maximum values are tabulated. Temperatures were also recorded. Testing can be divided into two time periods - fall of 1966 and spring of 1967. Values obtained from instruments show that different conditions existed during those testing periods, and that deflections , strains and stresses were two to four times higher in the spring than in the fall. Modes of failure were also different . Equivalencies between the different base materials were established. Other conclusions were drawn. Since this is a continuing experiment, it should be emphasized that results and conclusions are subject to change, depending upon data from the remaining experimental rings.

Authors:
Krukar,M., Cook,J. C.

Keywords:
asphalt, base, condition, construction, data, experimental, materials, pavement, pressure, research, strains, stresses, temperature, test track, tests, volume, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
Using full-scale construction equipment and truck loadings on a circular track of 260 feet circumference, evaluation of various base thicknesses and types has been accomplished in this first of a series of tests. Fractured and non-fractured aggregatre, treated and untreated bases, asphaltic and portland cement type bases are used. Results of the firest ring indicate type of failure under varied enviornmental conditions with pavement systems subjected to millions of load applications. Difficulties in determining comparative equivalencies are discussed. Instrumentations used and possibilities for future use in rational design are reported.

Authors:
Riedesel,G. A.

Keywords:
applications, base, condition, construction, design, equipment, evaluation, experimental, pavement, research, systems, test track, tests, truck, truck loadings, volume

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