Abstract:
The Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) and its partner agencies developed a research program to design new and retrofit culverts. The goal of this program is to identify culvert bed configurations, designs, and associated hydraulic conditions that allow successful movement of juvenile salmonids upstream, while safely passing water, sediment, and debris downstream. WSDOT, in cooperation with the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW), constructed a culvert test bed at the WDFS's Skookumchuck Hatchery in western Washington State. Battelle conducted experiments to establish protocols for future research on bed conditions, culvert shape, etc. This technical report describes various protocols, such as time of day, duration of test, and density of test fish, and provides hydraulic and biological characterizations of a baseline culvert.

Authors:
Pearson,W. H., Richmond,M., Johnson,G., Sargeant,S. L.

Keywords:
agencies, condition, culvert, culvert passage, culvert test bed, culverts, density, design, developed, evaluation, experimental, fish, ITS, juvenile salmonid, juvenile salmonid passage, program, research, retrofit, salmonids, transportation, Washington, Washington state, wildlife, WSDOT

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External Links: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/614.1.pdf http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/600/614.1.htm

Abstract:
This report documents the development of data collection methodologies that can be used to cost effectively measure truck movements along specific roadway corridors selected by transportation agencies in Washington State. The intent of this study was to design and test methodologies that could be used to measure the performance of freight mobility roadway improvement projects against benchmarks, or selected standards, that would be used both as part of the project selection process and to report on speed and volume improvements that resulted from completed freight mobility projects. One technology tested was Commercial Vehicle Information System and Networks (CVISN) electronic truck transponders, which are mounted on the windshields of approximately 20,000 trucks in Washington. By using software to link the transponder reads from sites anywhere in the state, the transponder-equipped trucks could become a travel-time probe fleet. The second technology tested involved global positioning systems (GPS) placed in volunteer trucks to collect specific truck movement data at 5-second intervals. With GPS data it was possible to understand when and where the monitored trucks experienced congestion and to generate useful performance statistics. The study found that both data collection technologies could be useful; however, the key to both technologies is whether enough instrumented vehicles pass over the roadways for which data are required. This basic condition affects whether the technologies will be effective at collecting the data required for any given benchmark project. The report also recommends the traffic data that should be collected for a benchmark program and the potential costs of using either data collection technology.

Authors:
McCormack,E. D., Hallenbeck,M. E.

Keywords:
agencies, commercial vehicle, condition, congestion, construction, corridors, cost, costs, data, data collection, design, development, freight, freight mobility, freight movement reliability, global positioning, global positioning systems, GPS, improvement, methodology, mobility, networks, performance, positioning, probe program, project, research, roadway, software, speed, statistics, Study, System, systems, technology, traffic, traffic data, transportation, travel time, truck, truck monitoring, trucks, volume, Washington, Washington state

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External Links: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/607.1.pdf http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/600/607.1.htm

Abstract:
Increasing traffic volumes and a deteriorating transportation infrastructure have stimulated the development of new systems and methods to accelerate the construction of highway bridges. Precast concrete bridge components offer a potential alternative to conventional reinforced, cast-in-place concrete components. The use of precast components has the potential to minimize traffic disruptions, improve work zone safety, reduce environmental impacts, improve constructability, increase quality, and lower life-cycle costs. This study compared two precast concrete bridge pier systems for rapid construction of bridges in seismic regions. One was a reinforced concrete system, in which mild steel deformed bars connect the precast concrete components and provide the flexural strength of the columns. The other was a hybrid system, which uses a combination of unbonded post-tensioning and mild steel deformed bars to make the connections. A parametric study of the two types of systems was conducted using nonlinear finite element models to investigate the global response and likelihood of damage for various frame configurations. On the basis of this study, a practical method was developed to estimate maximum seismic displacements from the cracked section properties of the columns, the elastic design displacement response spectrum, and the base-shear strength ratio. The results of the global nonlinear finite element analyses suggest that the systems have the potential for good seismic performance. Further analytical and experimental research is needed to investigate the constructability and seismic performance of the connection details.

Authors:
Hieber,D. G., Wacker,J. M., Eberhard,M. O., Stanton,J. F.

Keywords:
Alternative, bridge, bridges, columns, concrete, concrete bridge, connections, constructability, construction, cost, costs, damage, design, developed, development, environmental, environmental impact experimental, finite element, highway, impact, impacts, infrastructure, methods, models, performance piers, precast, precast concrete, prestressed concete, quality, Rapid construction, Regions, reinforce concrete, research, response spectra, response spectrum, safety, seismic, seismic performance, steel strength, Study, substructures, System, systems, traffic, traffic volumes, trasportation, volume

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External Links: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/611.1.pdf http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/600/611.1.htm

Abstract:
This research addresses the understanding of, and need for, load spectra in future pavement design procedures and as a stepping stone toward more complete pavement design. The primary objective of this project was to develop truck axle load spectra for Washington State. To do this, axle load data collected at WIM stations throughout Washington State were used. The developed load spectra encompass the principal truck axles on the roadway network: single, tandem, and tridem. Achieving this objective allows the Washington State Department of Transportation, or any state highway agency with analogous traffic patterns, to accommodate the requirements of the 2002 Design Guide, developed through NCHRP Project 1-37A. A secondary objective of this project was to determine whether ESALs obtained from the developed load spectra are significantly different from historical values. Because the developed load spectra are transformable to ESALs, state highway agencies that decide not to use the new guide can still choose to employ the ESALs produced with the load spectra. The project concluded that the developed load spectra are reasonable. For single axles they are comparable to the 2002 Design Guide and MnROAD defaults. For tandem and tridem axles, they are slightly more conservative than defaults of the 2002 Design Guide and MnROAD, but they are still within reason. In addition, the ESALs per vehicle class associated with the developed load spectra are comparable to Washington State historical ESALs for vehicle classes 9, 10, and 13. The use of the newly developed ESALs per vehicle will generally increase design ESALs, but that increase will be due to inclusion of the less predominant vehicle classes (4, 6, 7, 8, and 11).

Authors:
Al-Yagout,M. A., Mahoney,J. P., Pierce,L., Hallenbeck,M. E.

Keywords:
agencies, axle, data, design, developed, development, equivalent single axel load, ESAL, highway, load spectra, pavement, pavement design, performance, project, research, roadway, single axle, traffic, transportation, truck, Washington, Washington state, weigh-in-motion, WIM

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External Links: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/600.1.pdf http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/600/600.1.htm

Abstract:
This report documents the development of data collection methodologies that can be used to cost effectively measure truck movements along specific roadway corridors selected by the Freight Mobility Strategic Investment Board (FMSIB.) The intent of this study was to design and test methodologies that could be used to measure the performance of freight mobility roadway improvement projects against benchmarks, or selected standards, which would be used both as part of the project selection process and to report on speed and volume improvements that resulted from completed FMSIB projects. One technology tested was Commercial Vehicle Information System and Networks (CVISN) electronic truck transponders, which are mounted on the windshields of approximately 20,000 trucks traveling in Washington. These transponders are used at weigh stations across the state to improve the efficiency of truck regulatory compliance checks. By using software to link the transponder reads from sites anywhere in the state, the transponder-equipped trucks could become a travel time probe fleet. The second technology tested involved global positioning systems (GPS) placed in volunteer trucks recruited for this project to collect specific truck movement data at 5-second intervals. With GPS data it was possible to understand when and where the monitored trucks experienced congestion. By aggregating this information over time, it was possible to generate performance statistics related to the reliability of truck trips, and even examine changes in route choice for trips between high volume origin/destination pairs. The study found that both data collection technologies could be useful; however, the key to both technologies is whether enough instrumented vehicles pass over the roadways for which data are required. This basic condition significantly affects whether the transponder and GPS technologies will be effective at collecting the data required for any given FMSIB benchmark project . The report also recommends the traffic data that should be collected for a benchmark program and the potential costs of using either data collection technology.

Authors:
McCormack,E. D., Hallenbeck,M. E.

Keywords:
freight movement reliability, truck monitoring, development, data, data collection, methodology, cost, truck, roadway, corridors, freight, freight mobility, mobility, design, performance, speed, volume, commercial vehicle, networks, trucks, Washington, software, travel time, probe, global positioning, global positioning systems, positioning, systems, GPS, congestion, statistics, reliability, condition, traffic, traffic data, program, costs

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Abstract:
This research study was conducted to evaluate the in-service performance of existing guardrail end treatments and unrestrained pre-cast concrete barrier in Washington State. For a selected area of the state highway system over a one-year period, local area maintenance personnel were tasked to document incidents, including extent of damage and repair costs, into a database using NCHRP Project 22-13 methodology. Additional information (accident severity, e.g.) from police reports was gathered from the incidents and added to the database. The installation characteristics measured for Breakaway Cable Terminals (BCT) and Slotted Rail Terminals (SRT), along with the related crash data for these devices, showed overall acceptable performance when struck. Review of the incident severities, together with the displacement and damage data on struck barriers in the study area, revealed no significant difference in BCT and SRT performance. The installation, damage, and displacement characteristics examined on struck concrete barrier showed that the pin and loop connections were holding well in incidents, and the barrier displacements during incidents were within the WSDOT design specification for such systems.

Authors:
Igharo,P. O., Murphy,J., Glad,R. W.

Keywords:
performance, guardrail, Washington, Washington state, guardrail end treaments, breakaway cable terminal (BCT), roadside safety, slotted rail terminal (SRT), research, end treatment, precast concrete, concrete, concrete barrier, highway, maintenance, incident, damage, repair, costs, cost, database, methodology, accident severity, data, barriers, WSDOT, design, specification, systems

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External Links: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/580.1.pdf http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/500/580.1.htm

Abstract:
More extensive use of precast concrete components, which are fabricated off-site and then connected on-site, could allow bridges to be constructed more rapidly. The increased use of precast components in bridges also promises to increase work-zone safety and reduce environmental impacts for bridges that span waterways. This report discusses precast concrete systems that have been used for rapid bridge construction outside of Washington State and evaluates whether they are suitable for use within Western Washington. The report also identifies key features that are important for successful precast concrete system applications. Information on previously used systems was gathered through an extensive review of published literature. Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) design and construction engineers, precast concrete producers, and bridge contractors were also consulted to obtain their input on the positive and negative aspects of applied systems. Most applications have been used in areas of low seismic potential. By contrast, Western Washington is subject to strong earthquakes. Because precast systems contain connections, and connections are typically vulnerable to seismic loading, a qualitative evaluation of the expected seismic performance of each system was deemed necessary. The researchers identified four types of precast concrete superstructure systems: full-depth precast concrete panels, partial-depth precast concrete panels, prestressed concrete multibeam superstructures, and preconstructed composite units. The four systems appear to have acceptable seismic behavior, but there are concerns associated with constructability and durability. Precast concrete substructure systems have received much less attention than have superstructure systems. The use of precast substructure components can provide significant time savings by eliminating the time needed to erect formwork, fix steel, and cure concrete in the substructure. The success of the system depends strongly on the connections, which must hae good seismic resistance, have tolerances that allow easy assembly, and be suitable for rapid construction.

Authors:
Hieber,D. G., Wacker,J. M., Eberhard,M. O., Stanton,J. F.

Keywords:
bridge, bridges, concrete, construction, multibeam superstructures, precast concrete, precast substructures, prestressed concrete, Rapid construction, state-of-the-art, systems, safety, environmental, environmental impact, impacts, span, Washington, Washington state, applications, transportation, WSDOT, design, seismic, earthquake, seismic loading, evaluation, performance, superstructure, prestressed, seismic behavior, constructability, durability, steel, resistance

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External Links: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/594.1.pdf http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/500/594.1.htm

Abstract:
This report identifies the key issues that must be considered by state and other highway operating agencies in selecting traffic equipment for collecting the truck volumes and load spectra needed for analysis and design of pavement structures. The report also identifies steps that must be taken to ensure that the equipment performs appropriately and that, as a consequence, the data collected accurately describe the vehicles being monitored. The report is a useful resource for state personnel and others involved in the planning and design of highway pavements and structures.

Authors:
Hallenbeck,M. E., Weinblatt,H.

Keywords:
analysis, data, design, highway, pavement, pavements, structures, traffic, truck, volume, Miscellaneous Library

Abstract:
Cotton duck bearing pads (CDP) are sometimes used to support loads and accommodate movements and rotations at bridge bearings. CDP are preformed elastomeric pads consisting of thin layers of elastomer interlaid with fabric, and they are manufactured under Military Specifications with limited guidance from the AASHTO. The behavior of these CDP bearing pads was experimentally evaluated to establish design models for predicting this behavior, to determine the variation in behavior expected with different bearing pad manufacturers, and to develop design recommendations. This research is a follow-up study of an earlier research program sponsored by Arkansas State University.CDP bearing pads from three different manufacturers were tested, and the test program included dynamic and static (or monotonic) tests of bearings in shear, compression,and rotation. In general, the static tests were used to evaluate strength, stiffness, deformation limits, and general pad behavior. The dynamic tests examined durability and performance under repeated loading and deformation.The results of this test program were used to develop design recommendations, and an appendix includes a draft of proposed wording for modification of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications to include these design recommendations. In addition, a spreadsheet was developed in Microsoft EXCEL to accomplish the calculations necessary to complete the design.

Authors:
Lehman,D. E., Roeder,C. W., Larsen,R., Curtin,K.

Keywords:
cotton duck bearing pads, CDP, bridge bearings, bridge design, loads, bridge, specifications, specification, behavior, design, models, research, program, tests, strength, durability, performance

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External Links: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/569.1.pdf http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/500/569.1.htm

Abstract:
Proper estimation of soil reinforcement loads and strains is key to accurate design of the internal stability of geosynthetic and steel reinfoced soil structures. Current design methodologies use limit equilibrium concepts to estimate reinforcement loads for internal stability design, with empirical modifications to match the prediction to observed reinforcement loads at working stresses. This approach has worked reasonably well for steel reinforced walls but appears to seriously overestimate loads for geosynthetic walls.A large database of full-scale geosynthetic walls (16 fully instrumented, full-scale geosynthetic walls and 14 walls with limited measurements), full-scale steel reinforced wall sections was utilized to develop a new design methodology based on working stress principles, termed the K-Stiffness Method. This new methodology considers the stiffness of the various wall components and their influence on reinforcement loads. Results of simple statistical analyses to evaluate the ratio of predicted to measured peak reinforcement loads in geosynthetic walls were telling: the AASHTO Simplified Method results to an average ratio of measured to predicted loads of 0.45 with a coefficient of variation (COV) of 91 percent, whereas the proposed method results in an average of 0.99 and a COV of 36 percent. The proposed method remains accurate up until the point at which the soil begins to fail (approximaely 3 to 5 percent strain). For steel reinforced MSE walls, the improvement was more modest: AASHTO's Simplified Method results in an average ratio of predicted to measured loads of 1.12 with a (COV) of 45 percent, whereas the new K-Stiffness Method results in an average of 0.95 and a COV of 32 percent. The objective of the method is to design the wall reinforcement so that the soil within the wall backfill will not reach a state of failure consistent with the notion of working stress conditions. This soil failure limit state is not considered in the design methods currently available, yet, given the research results presented herein, is likely to be a controlling limit state for geosynthetic structures.The fruit of this research is a more accurate method for estimating reinforcement loads, thereby reducing reinforcement needs and improving the economy of reinforced soil walls. The scope of this research was limited to reinforced soil walls that utilize granular (non-cohesive, relatively low silt content) backfill.

Authors:
Allen,T. M., Bathurst,R. J.

Keywords:
reinforcement, walls, loads, strains, creep, design, research

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External Links: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/522.2.pdf http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/500/522.2.htm

Abstract:
An estimated 2,400 to 4,000 hydraulic structures are barriers to fish passage in Washington State. Many are culverts inadequately sized for fish Recently, the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife established statewide guidelines to incorporate fish migration into culvert design by providing two approaches: stream simulation and hydraulic design. Stream simulation involves culverts to be wider than the natural channel under bank-full conditions. The hydraulic design option requires culverts to satisfy minimum depth and maximum hydraulic drop constraints ranging from 0.8 to 1.0 A and permissible velocities from 2.0 to 6.0 depending on species and culvert length. The permissible velocity criterion is to be met during fish passage design flow. A new model is presented for fish passage design flows at streams in Eastern Washington. The model is founded on two key concepts: a unique definition of fish passage design flow and an area based approach for estimating flow at ungaged streams. The fish design flow was developed by combining the concepts of allowable fish delay, established to be 3 days, with a consecutive day analysis. This design flow ensures that fish are not delayed for than 3 consecutive days during a water year. A fish passage design flow per area is assigned to previously delineated subwatersheds in Eastern Washington. Similarity relationships, derived basin characteristics, relate Geological Survey gaging stations to sub-watersheds in Eastern Washington. These relationships form the basis for a value of fish passage design flow per unit area to each sub-watershed in Eastern Washington. The percent standard error for this model was calculated as 36%. This is a significant improvement the 75% standard error calculated for the model that previously addressed fish passage design flows in Eastern Washington.

Authors:
Rowland,E. R., Hotchkiss,R. H., Barber,M. E.

Keywords:
analysis, barrier, barriers, Channel, condition, culvert, design, design flows, developed, Error, fish, fish passage, flow, hydrologic models, improvement, model, modeling, structural safety, structures, survey, velocity, Washington, Washington state, wildlife

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External Links: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/545.1.pdf http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/500/545.1.htm

Abstract:
The pervasive problem of restoring fish runs to their natal streams is characterized in many regions of Washington by improperly placed culverts. The replacement of these fish migration barriers requires knowledge of design flows: floods for structural safety and migration season high and low flows. High flows block fish passage with velocities that exceed their swimming capabilities. During low flows, the migration barrier is caused by a lack of enough water depth to support the bodies of the fish. The estimation of these fish passage and safety flows in ungaged streams is impeded in eastern Washington due to: the wide range of conditions (5 to 110 inches per year of precipitation); diverse geology and soils; a lack of stream-gaging stations with long-term records; changes in land use; and the seasonal impacts of irrigation diversions and well on the remnant flows. Past efforts to estimate these flows have not been successful. Therefore, the WSU project was undertaken to model the high migration season flow in all of eastern Washington. In addition, WSU established 20 stream-gaging stations on salmon streams along the east side of the Cascade Mountains plus the Blue Mountains. Our complementary project was developed to estimate other design flows in the Water Resource Inventory Areas and 49, in which the WSU gage sites are located. United States Geological Survey (USGS) gage records in those (and in and 47) were used to develop our models that estimate the following statistical flows: 100-year, 25-year and 2-year daily and peak floods; the average annual flow and its variability; ranges of mean monthly flows (maximum, average and low); the 7-day average, 2-year, 10-year, 20-year low flow; and the 30- and 60-day average low flows. The model results are, for the most part, very good. The standard error of estimate ranges are: for floods, 2 -37%; average annual flow, 10-37%; maximum annual flow, 6 -14%; annual flow, 13 -23%; and flows, 3 -22%. Monthly average flows reflected the strong influences of seasonal variability and irrigation withdrawals: due to winter frozen Iowa flows (3%)in the Entiat,-Wenatchee Region, and August low flows (242%) in the Blue Mountains due to irrigation. All flow estimation equations were based on USGS stream-gaging data from continuous located in the located in the WRIA'S.

Authors:
Orsborn,J. F., Orsborn,M. T.

Keywords:
Annual, barrier, barriers, condition, culvert, culverts, data, design, design flows, developed, equations, Error, fish, fish passage, flood, flow, hydrologic models, impact, impacts, ITS, land use, land-use, model, models, project, safety, salmon, season, seasonal, soil, structural safety, survey, velocity, Washington, winter

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External Links: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/545.2.pdf http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/500/545.2.htm

Abstract:
This research project was an effort to improve our understanding of the internal stress-strain distribution in GRS retaining structures. Our numerical modelling techniques utilized a commercially available element program, FLAC (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua). In this research, we investigated and appropriately considered the plane strain soil properties, the effect of low confining pressure on the soil dilation angle, and in-soil and low strain rate geosynthetic reinforcement properties.Modeling techniques that are able to predict both the internal and external performance of GRS walls simultaneously were developed. Instrumentation measurements such as wall deflection and reinforcement strain distributions of a number of selected case histories were successfully reproduced by our numerical modeling techniques. Moreover, these techniques were verified by successfully performing true "Class A" predictions of three large-scale experimental walls.An extensive parametric study that included more than 250 numerical models was then performed to investigate the influence of design factors such as soil properties, reinforcement stiffness, and reinforcement spacing on GRS wall performance. Moreover, effects of design options such as toe restraint and structural facing systems were examined. An alternative method for internal stress-strain analysis based on the stress-strain behavior of GRS as a composite material was also developed. Finally, the modeling results were used to develop a new technique for predicting GRS wall face deformations and to make recommendations for the internal stability design of GRS walls.

Authors:
Holtz,R. D., Lee,W. F.

Keywords:
analysis, behavior, design, experimental, FLAC, geosynthetic, geotechnical, materials, modeling, models, performance, prediction, pressure, program, reinforcement, research, retaining wall, retaining walls, stability, structures, systems, walls

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External Links: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/532.1.pdf http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/500/532.1.htm

Abstract:
Proper estimation of soil reinforcement loads and strains is key to accurate design of the internal stability of geosynthetic and steel reinforced soil structures. Current design methodologies use limit equilibrium concepts to estimate reinforcement loads for internal stability design, with empirical modifications to match the prediction to observed reinforcement loads at working stresses. This approach has worked reasonably well for steel reinforced walls but appears to seriously overestimate loads for geosynthetic walls. A large database of full-scale geosynthetic walls (16 fully instrumented, full-scale geosynthetic walls and 14 walls with limited measurements) and 20 fully instrumented, full-scale steel reinforced MSE wall sections was utilized to develop a new design methodology based on working stress principles, termed the K0-Stiffness Method. This new methodology considers the stiffness of the various wall components and their influence on reinforcement loads. Results of simple statistical analyses to evaluate the ratio of predicted to measured peak reinforcement loads in geosynthetic walls were telling: the AASHTO Simplified Method results in an average ratio of predicted to measured loads of 2.9 with a coefficient of variation (COV) of 86%, whereas the proposed method results in an average of 1.12 and a COV of 41%. The proposed method remains accurate up until the point at which the soil begins to fail (approximately 3 to 5% strain). For steel reinforced MSE walls the improvement was more modest: AASHTO's Simplified Method results in an average ratio of predicted to measured loads of 1.04 with a (COV) of 51%, whereas the new K0-Stiffness Method results in an average of 1.12 and a COV of 35%. The objective of the method is to design the wall reinforcement so that the soil within the wall backfill will not reach a state of failure consistent with the notion of working stress conditions. This soil failure limit state is not considered in the design methods currently available, yet, given the research results presented herein, is likely to be a controlling limit state for geosynthetic structures.The fruit of this research is a more accurate method for estimating reinforcement loads, thereby reducing reinforcement needs and improving the economy of MSE walls. The scope of this research was limited to MSE walls that utilize granular (non-cohesive, relatively low silt content) backfill.

Authors:
Allen,T. M., Bathurst,R. J.

Keywords:
reinforcement, walls, loads, strains, creep, design

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External Links: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/522.1.pdf http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/500/522.1.htm

Abstract:
A new design methodology for estimating reinforcement loads in reinforced soil walls, termed the K 0-Stiffness Method, has been developed. This new method has been demonstrated to more accurately estimate reinfocement loads and strains in reinforced soil walls than do current design methodologies. Step-by-step procedures are provided to lead the designer through the reinforced soil wall internal stability design process using this new methodology. These step-by-step design procedures have been developed with a limit states design approach consistent with current design codes (in North America this is termed Load and Resistance Factor Design, or LRFD). Specifically, consideration has been given to strength and serviceability limit states. Load and resistance factors, based on statistical data where feasible, have been developed for use with this method. The results of examples from actual wall case histories were summarized and analyzed to assess how well the new methodology performs relative to current design practice. From this analysis of the design examples, the following was observed: For geosynthetic walls, the K 0-Stiffness Method has the potential to reduce required backfill reinforcement capacity relative to current design methodology by a factor of 1.2 to 3. For steel reinforced soil walls, the reduction in the reinforcement capacity relative to what is required by current design methodology is more modest, on the order of 1.0 to 2.1. Given these findings, use of the K 0-Stiffness Method can result in substantial cost savings, especially for geosynthetic walls, because of reduced reinforcement needs.

Authors:
Allen,T. M., Bathurst,R. J.

Keywords:
reinforcement, walls, loads, strains, creep, design, research, methodology, soil, developed, stability, design process, codes, North, resistance, strength, data, analysis, geosynthetic, steel, cost

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External Links: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/528.1.pdf http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/500/528.1.htm

Abstract:
Recently, WSDOT acquired a non-nuclear, non-destructive, density measuring device manufactured by TransTech called a Pavement Quality Indicator (PQI). TransTech's PQI measures pavement density indirectly by measuring its dielectric constant. A non-nuclear gauge is advantageous because it contains no radioactive source and is therefore not subject to radiological controls, and it can obtain readings in about 5 seconds versus to 4 minutes with a nuclear gauge. Currently, TransTech is collecting data from different agencies to determine the suitability for measuring asphalt pavement density. This brief study presents density measurements from PQI and compares them with nuclear density gauge and core density measurements from three WSDOT 1998 paving projects. This evaluation was a secondary study to 1998 study Asphalt Concrete Temperature in Washington State; therefore this study's experimental design was based entirely on the Temperature study requirements, which resulted in non-random samples and multiple populations within the same sample groups. Despite these problems, results indicate that, when averaged, PQI readings compare favorably with both nuclear measurements and core measurements.

Authors:
Muench,S. T., Mahoney,J. P., Cawley,B.

Keywords:
agencies, asphalt, asphalt concrete, asphalt pavement, concrete, control, core densities, data, density, design, evaluation, experimental, group, indicator, ITS, nuclear gauge, pavement, pavement quality, pavement quality indicator, population, project, quality, Study, temperature, Washington, Washington state, WSDOT

Abstract:
Funded by the 1987 Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act, the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP), was a five year, $150 million research program to improve the performance of the nation's roads by addressing four key areas: concrete and structures; highway safety and maintenance; asphalt; and long-term pavement performance. Nearly one-third of the $150 million was allocated for the study of asphalt, specifically to develop performance based specifications that would relate material properties of the binder and the mix to field performance. Superpave (Superior PERforming asphalt PAVEments) encompasses the products of the SHRP asphalt research program and consists of three interrelated elements: an asphalt binder specification with supporting tests; a mix design and analysis system with supporting tests; and performance prediction models. This report is a compilation and synthesis of Washington DOT's (WSDOT) experience with selected components and concepts of the SHRP/Superpave technology to include the following: performance graded (PG) binder usage and specification validation; gyratory mix design; the Superpave Shear Test (SST); and field performance of the Superpave mixes.Binders typically specified by WSDOT (AR400OW and PBAs -2, -5, -6. -6GR) were classified in terms of five Superpave performance grades: PG 58-22; 64-22; 64-28; 64-34; and 70-28. Although data from 171 weather stations suggest that as many as 6 low- and 5 high-temperature grades could be specified, binder availability and regional pavement distress were used to develop guidelines for statewide PG usage. Three binders were recommended for use in the western, northeastern and southeastern regions of the state as follows: PG 58-22; PG 58-34; and PG 64-28, respectively. Validation of the binder specification with respect to low temperature cracking was accomplished using binder and field performance data from 28 projects. The results were very encouraging: the original SHRP algorithm for binder selection correctly "predicted" field performance in 22 of 28 cases, whereas the LTPP algorithm for binder selection correctly "predicted" field performance in 26 of 28 cases.Additionally, a laboratory experiment using the Superpave Shear Test (SST) apparatus was undertaken to test the effectiveness of binder "bumping," i.e., increasing the high temperature grade because of exceptionally high traffic volume and/or slow or standing traffic. The data clearly indicate that the SST is an effective tool for discriminating between binders and that 'bumping" may be effective in reducing pavement rutting. Permanent shear strain for specimens made with a PB 70-xx binder was only 25 to 33% of the shear strain for specimens made with a PG 58-xx binder.As originally configured, the Superpave mix design matrix included seven traffic levels and four temperature regimes for 28 possible compaction levels. Recognizing that the 28 compaction levels made for a somewhat unwieldy system, WSDOT attempted to reduce the number of compaction levels by conducting a series of mix designs at each compaction level. The results of the limited experiment suggest that it might be possible to limit the number of compaction levels required for mix design. Research by Brown et. al. (NCHRP 99) tends to confirm this as they have suggested reducing the number of compaction levels and provided more definitive guidance with respect to each level.Since 1993 WSDOT has place 44 projects which include some component of the Superp ave technology. For 17 of these projects parallel Hveem and Superpave mix designs were conducted. In 13 of the 17 cases, the Superpave design asphalt content was equal to or greater than the Hveem design asphalt content, though the difference was usually no more than 0.2%. A fundamental difference between Hveem and Superpave mix design methods is the compaction device. Data from these field projects indicate that the current kneading and gyratory compaction protocols (at least for 109 gyrations) yield similar air void contents.As noted previously, Washington DOT has placed 44 projects which involve some component of the Superpave technology. For 18 of the projects a conventional Hveem mix design was conducted using a PG binder (Hveem-PG). The remaining 26 projects were truly Superpave, i.e., the materials selection and mix design were established in accordance with the Asphalt Institute's SP2, Superpave Level 1 Mix Design. According to WSDOT practice the following numerical indices trigger maintenance: Pavement Structural Condition (PSC) 10 mm; or International Roughness Index (IRI) > 500 cnVkm. Although relatively "young", the 44 projects are performing quite well. The average values of rutting, PSC, and IRI (4, 91, and 121, respectively) are all well below the "trigger" values. With respect to rutting and PSC, the performance of Hveem-PG and Superpave projects is virtually identical. However, the ride quality of the Superpave projects is a bit rougher than the Hveem-PG binder projects: IRI of 134 for the former and 103 for the latter. The higher values of IRI measured on the Superpave projects may be the result of the typically coarser aggregate gradation or differences in construction techniques.WSDOT's Superpave experience has not been without challenges. Still, its overall experience has been very encouraging. Experimentation with the revised compaction matrix, continued use of the SST, field validation of the "bumping" experiment, and long-term monitoring of field performance will provide the necessary data to allow WSDOTs critical assessment of Superpave's technical merit and economic viability.

Authors:
Leahy,R. B., Briggs,R. N.

Keywords:
SHRP, Superpave, asphalt, intermodal, transportation, transportation efficiency, highway, research, program, performance, concrete, structures, highway safety, safety, maintenance, pavement, specifications, specification, asphalt pavement, pavements, tests, design, analysis, prediction, models, Washington, WSDOT, data, temperature, cracking, LTPP, traffic, volume, compaction, materials, condition, international roughness index, roughness, index, ride quality, quality, aggregate, construction, ITS, monitoring

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Abstract:
This annual meeting covered a wide variety of transportation issues. Bridge and Design issues were discussed, material and pavement specification, as well as strategic planning and traffic control.

Authors:
Anderson,K. W.

Keywords:
69th, Annual, bridge, control, design, Meeting, pavement, planning, specification, strategic planning, traffic, traffic control, transportation, TRB

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Abstract:
The Seattle Wide-area Information for Travelers (SWIFT) project was a highly successful Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) Field Operational Test (FOT) that was conducted over a four-year period from 1993 to 1997. The purpose of the project was to test the efficacy of a High Speed Data System (HSDS), or FM Sub-carrier, to disseminate incident, bus and speed congestion information via three different end-user devices: pager watch, portable computer and in-vehicle navigation device. Six hundred ninety (690) commuters, many with route- or mode-choice options, participated in the FOT and provided user-acceptance evaluations. Other evaluation components examined the system architecture, communications coverage, deployment cost and institutional issues that affected the project.The primary purpose of the SWIFT Institutional Issues Study evaluation was to collect information regarding the institutional issues (e.g., policies, jurisdictional issues, internal and external factors) that affected design, development, testing, deployment and conduct of the SWIFT Field Operational Test (FOT); determine how these issues were overcome and what lessons could be learned. A secondary purpose of the evaluation was to document the history of the SWIFT project.The methodology for the SWIFT Institutional Issues Study consisted of two sets of questionnairesand two sets of semi-structured interviews that were conducted with fourteen (14) SWIFT team memberrepresentatives at two different points during the conduct of the SWIFT FOT: about midway through the conduct of the test and after the test was completed. All SWIFT team member responses were independently collected and SWIFT institutional issues were primarily identified by determining which topics were addressed by two or more individuals. Historical information was collected from various sources throughout the project.SWIFT represents one of the first ATIS FOTs conducted in this country. Earlier tests were conducted in Orlando, FL (TravTek) and Minneapolis St. Paul (Genesis) among others, yet the SWIFT FOT appears to have extended considerably the available database of information regarding ATIS effectiveness and acceptance. The addition of real-time bus information, in particular, has set the SWIFT FOT apart from others already conducted.One of the significant aspects of the SWIFT teaming agreement was the long-term interest in ITS and commitment of the organizations involved. For instance, the majority of the SWIFT team members articulated a long-term interest in ITS deployments. In addition, three organizations-Seiko, Etak and Metro Traffic Control-+ommitted themselves to fielding a \"SWIFT-like\" system after the project was completed. This degree of interest and commitment resulted in all of the SWIFT team members working together in a very effective, cooperative fashion throughout the FOT.A critical organizational structure that was instituted to implement SWIFT was the weeklyteleconference. This simple, yet cost-effective method of managing and discussing the technicalissues involved with the project was attributed by many of the SWIFT team members to aprimary instrument of the project\'s success. In particular, the SWIFT teleconferences enabledthe representatives of each organization to keep abreast of the developmental status of theproject, to brainstorm solutions to encountered problems and to develop scheduling sense.

Authors:
Wetherby,B.

Keywords:
ATIS, bus, computer, congestion, congestion information, cost, data, database, design, development, effectiveness, evaluation, incident, Institutional, Intelligent transportation system, interviews, Issues, ITS, methodology, mode choice, policy, portable computer, project, scheduling, seattle, speed, SWIFT, System, tests, traffic, transportation

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Abstract:
Comparative evaluations of seven soil nail wall design computer programs are described and analyzed. The performance evaluations of the available programs (SNAIL, NAIL-SOLVER, STARS, NAILM, GOLDNAIL, TALREN, and COLDUIM) was accomplished by conducting a number of example analyses. Ten hypothetical cases and five case studies used in the analyses represented common design scenarios. Also examined were the magnitude and distribution of loads on the nails under normal working conditions. This was accomplished by observing the response of soil nails for a number of walls instrumented with strain gages. From this a general approach for estimating nail loads from strain history data was developed.

Authors:
Banerjee,S., Finney,A., Wentworth,T., Bahiradhan,M.

Keywords:
soil nailing, walls, computer program, design, working loads, research

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Abstract:
Comparative evaluations of seven soil nail wall design computer programs are described and analyzed. The performance evaluations of the available programs (SNAIL, NAIL-SOLVER, STARS, NAILM, GOLDNAIL, TALREN, and COLDUIM) was accomplished by conducting a number of example analyses. Ten hypothetical cases and five case studies used in the analyses represented common design scenarios. Also examined were the magnitude and distribution of loads on the nails under normal working conditions. This was accomplished by observing the response of soil nails for a number of walls instrumented with strain gages. From this a general approach for estimating nail loads from strain history data was developed.

Authors:
Banerjee,S., Finney,A., Wentworth,T., Bahiradhan,M.

Keywords:
computer program, design, research, soil nailing, walls, working loads

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Abstract:
Comparative evaluations of seven soil nail wall design computer programs are described and analyzed. The performance evaluations of the available programs (SNAIL, NAIL-SOLVER, STARS, NAILM, GOLDNAIL, TALREN, and COLDUIM) was accomplished by conducting a number of example analyses. Ten hypothetical cases and five case studies used in the analyses represented common design scenarios. Also examined were the magnitude and distribution of loads on the nails under normal working conditions. This was accomplished by observing the response of soil nails for a number of walls instrumented with strain gages. From this a general approach for estimating nail loads from strain history data was developed.

Authors:
Banerjee,S., Finney,A., Wentworth,T., Bahiradhan,M.

Keywords:
computer program, design, research, soil nailing, walls, working loads

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Abstract:
Currently, two commonly used restrainer design methods are those mandated by the American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and the California Department of Transportation (CALTRANS). To evaluate these methods and perhaps develop a new method, the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) sponsored this study.Using sample WSDOT designs and seismic retrofitting guidelines from WSDOT and CALTRANS, the researchers developed a model of a two-frame bridge with a single in-span hinge. The nonlinear response of the bridge was studied to determine the maximum opening experienced at the in-span hinge and the maximum relative displacements at the abutments.To identify the parameters most important in restrainer design and in predicting the unrestrained maximum relative abutment displacements, the researchers varied eleven parameters. The parametric study identified the parameters that significantly influenced the maximum relative hinge displacement (MRHD) and the maximum relative abutment displacements (MRAD). Currently, two commonly used restrainer design methods are those mandated by the American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and the California Department of Transportation (CALTRANS). To evaluate these methods and perhaps develop a new method, the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) sponsored this study.Using sample WSDOT designs and seismic retrofitting guidelines from WSDOT and CALTRANS, the researchers developed a model of a two-frame bridge with a single in-span hinge. The nonlinear response of the bridge was studied to determine the maximum opening experienced at the in-span hinge and the maximum relative displacements at the abutments.The AASHTO empirical seat width equation and the CALTRANS restrainer design method were compared with the results of nonlinear time history analysis. The empirical seat width equation produced conservative results while the CALTRANS method produced inconsistent results, a large amount of scatter and some significantly unconservative values.Using the results of the parametric study, the researchers developed a new restrainer design method that predicted the MRHD much more accurately than the CALTRANS method. The researchers also developed a method for estimating the unrestrained MRAD.

Authors:
Trochalakis,P., Eberhard,M. O., Stanton,J. F.

Keywords:
bridge, design, hinge, earthquake, evaluation, restrainers

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Abstract:
The Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) is currently retrofitting many older bridges to prevent their superstructures from unseating during earthquakes. In bridges whose simply supported spans have inadequate bearing lengths, WSDOT most frequently connects adjacent spans with high-strength rod restrainers. The study described in this report was undertaken to determine whether restrainers in this manner are effective in preventing span unseating and to develop a method for identifying vulnerable simply supported spans. A companion report considered the design of seismic restrainers for in-span hinges.The researchers developed a nonlinear analytical model of a four-span, simply supported, prestressed concrete bridge. Variations of this model were subjected to four ground motions to determine the maximum relative displacements between the simply supported spans and their supports. The maximum relative displacements at the piers depended most on the bearing friction resistance, the earthquake motion, and the size of the joints in the deck. The maximum relative displacements at the abutments depended most on the bearing resistance and the earthquake motion.Based on the results of the parametric study, the researchers developed a new method to estimate the susceptibility of bridges to unseating of simply supported spans. The researchers also found that restrainers connecting adjacent spans are ineffective in reducing the relative displacements between the superstructure spans and their supports.

Authors:
Trochalakis,P., Eberhard,M. O., Stanton,J. F.

Keywords:
bridge, design, span, unseating, earthquake, evaluation

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Abstract:
The objective of this project was to recommend to the Washington State Department of Transportation a new process for conducting constructability reviews. In Phase I of the project, the researchers sought to define the problem, identify critical issues, and develop the initial elements of a Constructability Review Process (CRP).To understand how WSDOT develops its projects, the researchers obtained documents and briefs on a current series of management studies; reviewed WSDOT's manuals, directives, and guides describing the project development process involved; and conducted an extensive round of interview with WSDOT staff and management, as well as interviews with consultants and others involved with the process. They also reviewed projects on SR 18 in the Northwest Region.The CRP model was developed concurrently with other studies focusing on other aspects of improving the WSDOT Project Development Process. Although significant changes are being implemented that should result in improvements, the researchers found that issues germane to constructability remain. These include the need for WSDOT to consider constructability in a statewide Project Management Process; to form a multi-disciplinary CRP team at the project scoping phase; for closer communication, coordination, and team building between the Headquarters Structures Service Center and the Regional Design offices; for plans review coordination with the final constructability review; for structured project checklists for use throughout the project development process; and for an accessible record of design decisions made, as well as design and post-contract lessons learned.The researchers agree that re-engineering being done to the project development process is making improvements that are consistent with the constructabilityt enhancement provided by the CRP. The main aspects of this new process are as follows: At the draft Project Identification Report (PIR) stage, a project-level Value Engineering study should be considered for projects that are major, costly, or that include complex features to evaluate every possibly alternative for the project. A set of up to four constructability reviews should be implemented, with the number depending on the project's type, size and complexity. The general purpose of the constructability review is to assure that constructability issues, including maintainability, are identified and resolved before completion of the PS&E. A system of checklists and a compendium of lessons learned should be developed for use throughout the project.

Authors:
McManus,J. F., Phillip,N. A., Stanton,J. F., Turkiyyah,G. M.

Keywords:
constructability, quality, design, construction, maintenance

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Abstract:
The purpose of this study is to provide the Washington State Department of Transportation, Aviation Division (WSDOT/AD) with the broad-based vision needed to apply new and emerging technology in geographic information systems (GIS) to aviation planning and reporting systems.The purpose of this study is to provide the Washington State Department of Transportation, Aviatior Division with the broad-based vision needed to apply new and emerging technology ir geographic information systems to aviation planning and systems. This is the second two reports. report documented the user needs, established data and application priorities, and presented a conceptual design for sharing geographic information pertaining to Washington\'s airports with airport sponsors, the Aviation Administration (FAA), and other WSDOT divisions. report provides an implementation plan. This report builds upon the conceptual design to provide a broad-based implementation plan. Three implementation activities are described in phases. Project organization and staffing requirements for policy, management, technical operations, and technical support are discussed in Section 3. Section 4 addresses the estimated resource requirements for WSDOT to make the implementation of WINGS a success. Included are requirements for personnel, data conversion from a manual to a computer-based system, and hardware. The of the report discusses issues and what next steps are required to begin the implementation of WINGS.

Authors:
Weston,R. F., Sandersen,J., Walker,L. A., Middleton,R.

Keywords:
airports, aviation, aviation planning, data, design, geographic information system, geographic information systems, GIS, implementation plan, information systems, management, manual, planning, policy, project, System, systems, technology, transportation, Washington, Washington state, WINGS, WSDOT

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Abstract:
In this research, global positioning system (GPS) technology was used to track the velocity and position of ferry vessels during berthing maneuvers, and vessel characteristics that affect berthing maneuvers were reviewed. Ferry vessels were tracked for 24 berthing maneuvers and five complete crossings. The research team found that the plot of vessel speed vs. distance from the landing structure was consistent and that the crews used a consistent sequence throttle settings as they approached the berth. Changes of slope in a speed vs. distance plot were correlated to changes in throttle setting. Vessels used a variety of approach paths when they were more than 1,000 ft from the landing; however, the paths converged when the vessels were within 500 ft of the landing. Records of sea trials provided information on vessel turning and stopping ability. On the basis of the findings, a velocity vs. distance envelope was developed for use as a ferry landing design criteria. The report recommends that GPS tracking become a regular part of the ferry terminal design procedure and that future vessel tracking be conducted during sea trials and difficult landing situations.

Authors:
Jahren,C. T., Margaroni,S., Scarpelli,A.

Keywords:
ferry, vessel, port design, berthing, ferry landing, design, fender design, ferry terminal design, global positioning systems, sea trials

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Abstract:
A procedure is developed for selecting design criteria for the berthing energy fender systems at ferry landings. In particular, end berthing arrangements are considered. A sample of 568 landing events are reviewed to find the distribution of approach velocity for kinetic energy calculations. An upper bound for the berthing coefficient is also identified. The design procedure is developed that involves 1) identification of the upper limits of the approach velocity by analyzing a sample of berthing events, 2) selection of a safety factor by making systematic judgments, 3) selection of a berthing coefficient based on experimental results, and 4) selection of design berthing energy using the kinetic energy formula. Further research is recommended to improve the placement of landing aids and to develop design criteria for other landing structures.

Authors:
Jahren,C. T., Jones,R.

Keywords:
ferry, port, vessel, design, design criteria, fender, marine engineering, field test, harbors

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Abstract:
A procedure is developed for selecting design criteria for the berthing energy fender systems at ferry landings. In particular, end berthing arrangements are considered. A sample of 568 landing events are reviewed to find the distribution of approach velocity for kinetic energy calculations. An upper bound for the berthing coefficient is also identified. The design procedure is developed that involves 1) identification of the upper limits of the approach velocity by analyzing a sample of berthing events, 2) selection of a safety factor by making systematic judgments, 3) selection of a berthing coefficient based on experimental results, and 4) selection of design berthing energy using the kinetic energy formula. Further research is recommended to improve the placement of landing aids and to develop design criteria for other landing structures.

Authors:
Jahren,C. T., Jones,R.

Keywords:
ferry, port, vessel, design, design criteria, fender, marine engineering, field test, harbors

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Abstract:
Dames & Moore And their subcontractor, Inco Engineers, have prepared this Manual of Practice for conducting bridge foundation-soil interaction analyses. The manual is intended to assist engineers in the Bridge Design office at the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) who perform dynamic analysis of bridge-foundation systems. The primary purpose of the manual is to present practical and accurate methods of estimating the foundation stiffness matrices for abutment or pier foundations supported on footings or piles. These matrices are needed for soil-structure interaction analysis to more accurately determine the seismic loads acting on the bridge superstructure and on the abutment and pier foundations.This Manual of Practice consists of two volumes. Volume I presents five bridge example problems:1. Coldwater Creek2. Deadwater Slough3. Ebey Slough4. Northup Way5. FHWAThe first four examples are actual WSDOT bridges and the fifth example is a fictitious bridge that appeared in a 1991 FHWA course notebook on seismic design of highway bridges.Volume II presents the input and output files of the SEISAB computer program for the dynamic soil-structure interaction analysis of bridges. The SEISAB computer program is currently used by WSDOT in the seismic design of Washington state bridges.Dames & Moore recommends the FHWA and Novak methods to estimate bridge foundation stiffness matrices. These methodologies are presented in detail in the Coldwater Creek example problem in Volume I. In this example, the basic theory and relevant equations or inputs for implementing these methodologies are provided first and are immediately followed by their application to the Coldwater Creek bridge. The appropriate equations or inputs from the FHWA and Novak methodologies presented not the Coldwater Creek example problem are identified and applied in the other four bridge example problems. Volume I also contains three appendices. The basis for the recommendation of the FHWA and Novak methods is provided in Appendix A, which is a reproduction of the 1992 Dames & Moore report to WSDOT on the evaluation of methods to estimate foundation stiffnesses. Appendix B consists of selected pages from the BMCOL 76 computer program user guide; this computer program, which computes the load-deflection and moment-rotation curves for single piles, is part of the FHWA methodology. Appendix C presents the method for transforming the foundation stiffness matrices from one coordinate system to another. This transformation process is important because the coordinate systems assumed in the FHWA and Novak methods are generally different and therefore are not necessarily the same as the SEISAB coordinate system. Coordinate transformations are also discussed in the ColdWater Creek example problem.

Authors:
Dames & Moore- Inca Engineering

Keywords:
analysis, bridge, bridge design, bridge foundation, bridges, computer, computer program, design, equations, evaluation, Foudation-Soil, foundation, foundation stiffness, highway, interaction, loads, manual, methodology, methods, piles, program, seismic, seismic design, soil-structure interaction, superstructure, System, systems, transportation, volume, Volumes I & II, Washington, Washington state, WSDOT

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Abstract:
The use of concrete block pavement (CBP) is limited in the U.S., as most research papers are published elsewhere. This report examines CBP's from several perspectives to provide an overview of this alternative pavement technology. First, the CBP system is described. The importance of using the proper bedding sand graduations is stressed, and the phenomenon of lock-up, or interlock, is explained. The various design methods for CBP's are also presented, and the concept of equivalency factors is discussed. Next, the structural performance of several CBP costs in the Puget Sound area are provided, and the prices paid by WSDOT for asphaltic concrete and portland cement concrete are reviewed to determine their cost competitiveness with CBP.

Authors:
Abate,Lt M. K.

Keywords:
pavement, concrete blocks, design, costs

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External Links: http://depts.washington.edu/trac/bulkdisk/pdf/319.1.pdf

Abstract:
This final report demonstrates the feasibility of employing high molecular weight/high density polyethylene cylinders as the energy dissipating medium in highway safety appurtenances. It is shown that this polymer can dissipate large amounts of kinetic energy, undergo large deformations and strains without fracturing, and essentially restore itself to its original size, shape, and energy dissipation potential when the forcing function is removed.This research involves a quasi-static and impact loading experimentalinvestigation to determine the energy dissipation characteristics of HMW HDPEtubes as functions of temperature, radius to wall thickness ratio, strain,strain-rate, deformation, and repeated and cyclic loading. The results ofthis experimental program are analyzed to develop analytic energy dissipationexpressions which are then employed in the design of truck mountedattenuators (TMA), Finally, an expert system computer program, CADS, ismodified to use HMW HDPE tubes in the generalized design of crash cushions.The potential financial, legal, and safety payoffs for highway operationsassociated with developing highway safety devices which are essentiallymaintenance free are significant. Maintenance costs associated with therepair of impacted safety devices would be greatly reduced or eliminated.Tort liability exposure related to damaged or collapsed hardware would besignificantly decreased. Finally, the safety of the motoring public and themaintenance personnel involved in maintaining and repairing damaged hardwarewould be enhanced.

Authors:
Carney III,J. F.

Keywords:
computer, computer program, cost, costs, cyclic loading, density, design, development, Energy, experimental, expert system, exposure, highway, highway safety, impact, impact attenuation devices, ITS, maintenance, maintenance free, polyethylene, polymer, program, public, research, reusable, safety, self-restoration, strains, temperature, truck

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Abstract:
In order to provide for a preload fill in an area of limited right-of-way, the Washington State Department of Transportation designed and supervised the construction of a geotextile reinforced retaining wall 12.6m (41.3 ft) high. Because the wall supported a surcharge fi11 more than5 m (16 ft.) in height and was significantly higher than any previouslyconstructed wall of i t s type, an extensive program of instrumentationof the geotextile reinforcement and measurement o f the wall movementswas instituted. The paper describes the wall design and construction,1)purpose and objectives of the instrumentation program, instrumentation . .selection and installation, and results of the monitoring. The measureddeflections and reinforcement strain were low, and overall wall performance was excellent.

Authors:
Allen,T. M., Christopher,B., Holtz,R. D.

Keywords:
construction, design, geotextile, Geotextiles, monitoring, objectives, performance, program, reinforcement, retaining wall, surcharge, transportation, walls, Washington, Washington state

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External Links: http://wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/200/257.1.htm

Abstract:
This study investigated the opportunities for converting the lands surrounding a major suburban arterial so that they would no longer force residents to depend solely on the automobile but would support other modes of transportation. The study explored the integration of HOV lanes into the suburban arterial to better serve public transportation, pedestrian mobility, and bicycle circulation. These land use and transportation improvements could allow many suburban residents safe, easy, and pollution-free access to work, shopping, school, library and play. The improvements could convert suburban streets presently served only by cars into neighborhoods similar to the 'streetcar communities' of yesteryear, catering to pedestrian and bicyclists. The changes could save energy, reduce pollution, and rebuild a spirit of community.

Authors:
Untermann,R. K.

Keywords:
geographical, land use, design, HOV and planning

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Abstract:
In this study a survey was conducted to ascertain the needs of employees of local governmental agencies with regard to the conduct of the design of bridges. Recommendations, relative to the development of standard plans which can be used by county engineers, are put forth. These recommendations are based on the needs of the local agencies, information regarding existing manufacturing capabilities, information concerning existing standard plans relative to bridges and information on an existing computer software program (BRADD-2) which is available from the AASHTO. The information on which the recommendations were made was obtained by telephone conversations, written questionnaires and/or personal visits with/form/to 75 local agencies (46 cities and 39 counties) in the state of Washington and by personal visits to 4 precasitng plants and 1 fabricating plant.

Authors:
Sorensen,H.

Keywords:
agencies, bridge, bridge design, bridge standards, bridges, computer, concrete, counties, design, development, fabricators, local government, precast, prestressed, program, software, standard plans, suppliers, survey, Washington

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Abstract:


Authors:
Higgins,J. D., Fragaszy,R. J.

Keywords:
loess, cut slope, design

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Abstract:
This report documents the limited results of a study which monitored the movement of a comparatively large (45 feet in height) gabion wall. The data collected indicated that about 4.5 inches of movement occurred at the top of the wall in the form of an outward tilt away from the backfill. Design procedures used to construct the wall for a period now exceeding 12 years.

Authors:
Anderson,K. W.

Keywords:
data, design, Gabion, inclinometer, pressure cell, soil

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Abstract:
The use of BoniFibers fiber reinforced Asphalt Concrete Pavement (ACP) at three City of Tacoma intersections is reported. Product selection, fiber reinforced ACP mix design, old pavement removal, construction and evaluations are documented.BoniFibers fabric reinforced ACP appears to provide a durable roadway at intersections that have a high volume of turning and heavy traffic. Continued monitoring of the City of Tacoma fiber reinforced ACP is recommended until major deterioration occurs.

Authors:
Toney,C. A.

Keywords:
asphalt, asphalt concrete, Asphalt Concrete pavement, Bonifibers, concrete, construction, design, deterioration, evaluation, fiber Reinforced ACP, fiber reinforced pavement, monitoring, pavement, pavements, Polyester Fibers, Polymar Fibers, roadway, traffic, volume

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Abstract:
A survey of standards for bridges, which exist in the U.S., was conducted, pertinent information concerning these standards was placed into a matrix spread sheet format using Lotus 1-2-3 and an IBM/PC. This information was reviewed for possible use in developing plans .for standard bridge systems, which could be used by county engineers in Washington.Information on types of standard bridge systems to be developed was obtained from Washington county engineers via a questionnaire. It is recommended that designs for at least one standard bridge system be developed for each of the primary materials readily available in Washington, namely: steel, concrete and wood. Other details, which should be included in the standards, are given.

Authors:
Sorensen,H., Olson,C. D.

Keywords:
bridge, bridge standards, bridges, concrete, counties, design, lotus 1-2-3, materials, microcomputer, spread sheet, steel, survey, systems, Washington, Washington County Engineers

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Abstract:
This study investigated the feasibility of eliminating endblocks from pretensioned continuos bridge girders. The removal of endblocks is estimated to reduce girder costs by 5 to 10 percent. The girders studied were the Washington State Department of Transportation\'s \"Series 14\". These girders are characterized by 5 inch thick webs and are prestressed with both harped and straight 1/2 inch diameter grade 270 stands. Previous research had recommended the elimination of endblocks for simple span bridges. This study dealt with continuous bridges.The research consisted test and a destructive laboratory test. The field test was used identify bases for the destructive testing. \"Series14 \" girder with endblocks and \"Series 60\" girders without endblocks were instrumented with strain gages and monitored from the time they manufactured to the time thel oads were tested on the bridge. The laboratory test was performed with a balanced cantilever arrangement using two \"14\" girders without without endblocks. The joint at the support was made continuous by providing deck reinforcement in a manner similar to reinforcing details used by WSDOT. Concentrated incrementally applied at a distance of 13 ft.10 inches from the continuous support. The modified girders performed effectively under applied loads. Therefore, endblocks may be removedfrom continuous Series \"14\" girders with normal diaphragms. The study recommends that one \"Series 14\" continuous girder without endblocks be designed and monitored through the various stages ofconstruction and service in another bridge.

Authors:
Itani,R., Hiremath,G. S., Vasisth,U.

Keywords:
base, bridge, bridges, concrete, construction, cost, costs, Deck, design, diaphragms, endblocks, field test, girders, loads, prestressed, prestressed concrete, Prestressing, pretensioned, reinforcement, research, span, transportation, Washington, Washington state, WSDOT

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Abstract:
The current design practice used by WSDOT for the design of permanent tieback walls is to assume that the static design of a tieback wall retaining clayey soils provides an adequate reserve of strength to prevent failure during seismic loading. This design procedure is based largely on the assumption that the soil and the wall move together ground shaking and that significant loads are not produced. For tieback walls retaining sandy soils, it is assumed that dynamic loads are produced. Mononobe-Okabe dynamic soil pressures are added to the design pressure to account for the dynamic load. The validity of these assumptions and the resultant design practices is evaluated in this study. A pilot numerical study was conducted on a forty foot high wall with three levels of tiebacks using the program FLUSH. It was found that the wall and the soil tend to move in-phase and only negligible dynamic tie forces are generated. However, the soil above and below the excavation level tends to move out-of-phase, leading to significant dynamic pressures and bending moments in the wall and near the excavation level. It appears that in least some cases, tieback walls with an adequate static safety factor may suffer significant damage or fail during seismic loading and that the use of Mononobe-Okabe dynamic pressures may be conservative.

Authors:
Fragaszy,R. J., Denby,G., Higgins,J. D., Ali,Nmjad

Keywords:
account, bending, damage, design, earthquake, forces, loads, pressure, program, retaining wall, retaining walls, safety, Sandy soils, seismic, seismic loading, seismic response, soil, soil pressure, strength, Tieback Walls, tiebacks, walls, WSDOT

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Abstract:
The pavement management system developed by the State of Washington was modified to meet the needs of the counties in the State of Washington within the constraints of available data and resources. The modified system, called the Washington County Pavement Management System (WCPMS), was tested for Thurston and Benton counties. Results of this testing show that; (1) The WCPMS can be operated using the existing data in the county road log in combination with collected pavement condition survey data; (2) computer resources are available to most counties to access the State computer to execute the various programs in the WCPMS; and (3) routine usage of the WCPMS for a network of 1000 miles will require a level of effort of about 150 person-days and a computer cost of $1,000.

Authors:
Kramer,S. L., Sivaneswaran,N., Tucker,K., Kulkarni,R. B., Finn,F. N.

Keywords:
bridge, design, hinge, earthquake, evaluation restrainers, pavement management, pavement management systems, counties

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Abstract:


Authors:
Mahoney,J. P., Jackson,N. C.

Keywords:
asphalt, pavement, design, performance

Abstract:
The first phase of a three-phase research investigation of cut slope design criteria for southeastern Washington loess has been completed. A literature review of engineering properties of loess from other locales and design criteria applied by various state transportation departments were conducted. A1so, a preliminary field investigation was made to collect representative soil samples and record failure mechanisms. Past research has revealed that proper drainage control in combination with water content and gradational characteristics, are the primary factors influencing cut slope performance in loessial soils. Analysis of 40 soil samples collected during the field study, demonstrate a close similarity between southeastern Washington loess and deposits from the central United States. Although physical properties are similar, differing climates produce a disparity in failure mechanisms between Midwestern and southeastern Washington loessial deposits.

Authors:
Higgins,J. D., Fragaszy,R. J., Beard,L. D.

Keywords:
analysis, control, criteria, cut slope, design, design criteria, development, drainage, erosion, loess, performance, research, review, slope stability, soil, state-of-the-art, Study, transportation, Washington

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Abstract:
The feasibility of adopting the Washington State Pavement Management System(WSPMS) for use by Washington counties was established. The WSPMS designoffers a great deal of flexibility for adjusting the system to satisfy thecounties needs. Some modifications to computer programs will be necessaryand can be accomplished with relatively modest effort. The major adjustmentswill be in those counties input data. The only data that are absolutelyessential are those for determining and evaluating pavement condition andthe most cost effective rehabilitation strategies.The state computer system has an adequate storage capacity to support usageof the WSPMS by a large number of counties. Dial-up capability i s availablefor use of WSPMS from remote terminals. Data processing hardware optionsavailable to counties range from no data processing equipment to stand alonecomputer system,A t r i a l demonstration is recommended, Two counties, one large with in-housecomputer f a c i l i t i e s and one small with no or minimal f a c i l i t i e s would bechosen to test the system.Significant. benefits are anticipated from the use of WSPMS. Washingtoncounties desiring to improve the process o f pavement management may findadopting and operating the WSPMS to feasible and desirable.

Authors:
Kulkarni,R. B., Finn,F. N., Lamot,A.

Keywords:
benefit, benefits, computer, computer program, condition, cost, cost effective, counties, data, design, equipment, maintenance, management, management system, Operating, pavement, pavement condition, pavement management, pavement repair, program, rehabilitation, Study, System, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
The study is reported in two volumes. The first volume summarizes the state-of-the-art on pavement overlay design and presents a research plan to develop an overlay design procedure for the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) The second volume contains an annotated bibliographyof significant pavement overlay literature published since 1968.The state-of-the-art review presented in Volume I addresses pavement evaluation using nondestructive testing and subjective ratings. These are discussed along with the topics of traffic and seasonal variations. Pavement overlay design concepts are identified and discussed. A research plan is presented forthe development of a pavement overlay design system for WSDOT.

Authors:
Newcomb,D. E., Bubushait,A. A., Mahoney,J. P., Sharma,J.

Keywords:
design, development, evaluation, nondestructive testing, overlay, pavement, pavement evaluation, performance, research, review, seasonal, seasonal variation, seasonal variations, state-of-the-art, Study, System, traffic, transportation, volume, Washington, Washington state, WSDOT

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Abstract:
This report is presented in two volumes. The first volume summarizes the Final Report Sept. 15 - Dec. 15, 1983 14. Sponsoring Agency Code state-of-the-art on pavement overlay design and presents a research plan to develop an overlay design procedure for the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) . The second volume contains an annotated bibliography of significant pavement overlay 1iterature pub1ished since 1968.The state-of-the-art review presented in Volume I addresses pavement evaluation using nondestructive testing and subjective ratings. These are discussed along with the topics of traffic and seasonal variations. Pavement overlay design concepts are identified and discussed. A research plan is presented for the development of a pavement overlay design system for WSDOT,

Authors:
Newcomb,D. E., Bubushait,A. A., Mahoney,J. P., Sharma,J.

Keywords:
agencies, design, development, evaluation, nondestructive testing, overlay, pavement, pavement evaluation, performance, research, review, seasonal, seasonal variation, seasonal variations, state-of-the-art, System, traffic, transportation, volume, Washington, Washington state, WSDOT

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Abstract:
A study of recreational vehicle waste disposal at highway rest areas was conducted from RV wastewater is significantly stronger than wastewater in BOD, COD, and suspended solids. It also contains preservative compounds, most of which contain formaldehyde or a formaldehyde derivative. With adequate dilution, these wastes should not interfere with waste by mixed cultures of aerobic or anaerobic bacteria or There that waste treatment facilities be affected by improper use of the disposal stations, such as for disposal of hazardous wastes. In addition, improper use may lead to temporary unsanitary conditions around the station. Equations to estimate disposal station use and loading factors, and design equations for treatment of wastes are presented. The public perceives the stations to be and cost-effective provided they are paid for by RV owners. RV owners are willing to pay an annual fee which will cover the costs of construction, operation and maintenance of the stations.

Authors:
Kiernan,K., Brown,C., Benjamin,M., Ferguson,J. F.

Keywords:
Annual, biological waste treatment, condition, construction, cost, cost effective, costs, design, disposal, equations, facilities, fee, Formaldehyde Toxcity, Hazardous, hazardous wastes, highway, maintenance, public, recreational vehicles, rest area, rest areas, Study, suspended solids

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Abstract:
This report examines major issues, concepts and methods of bus transit performance evaluation and suggests procedures and guidelines for internal and external monitoring in Washington State. In support of suggested procedures, data analysis on six years of operational and financial characteristics of Washington State systems, 1979-80 Section 15 data, and collected samples of small community/rural systems from other states was conducted. The major objective of the analysis was to test methodologies for developing and assessing transit peer groups\" relative to size and scale of operations, and prior to comparative within-group evaluation. The methodology entailed employing cluster analysis using up to 10 variables depicting service design and distribution. Two key variables were population and line miles. Problems were encountered in using Section 15 data. Due to its use of urban area, as opposed to service area population, clear distinctions of operating environments could not be determined. Thus, cluster groupings using Section 15 data were inconclusive. Cluster State systems (1980) were satisfactory and following additional verification, a suggested \"peer group\" classification for Washington State was recommended. The seven group types ranged in size from a rural regional (<40,000 population) to metropolitan (<1,000,00 population). Values for 8 efficiency and effectiveness indicators were used to assess \"peer group\" trends in performance in Washington over a five-year period (1976-80). Comparative evaluations of individual systems were not made. Despite only partial success in determining \"peer groups\", the study does identify methods and procedures for assisting in external and internal performance evaluation.

Authors:
Kelly,W. J., Rutherford,G. S.

Keywords:
peer group evaluation, analysis, bus, bus transit, cluster analysis, data, data collection, design, effectiveness, efficiency, environment, evaluation, group, indicator, indicators, Issues, ITS, line, methodology, methods, monitoring, Operating, performance, performance evaluation, performance measures, performance standards, population, rural, section 15 data, Study, System, systems, transit, urban, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
This small car accident study investigated accidents in Washington State in four passenger car categories: subcompact, compact intermediate, and large. The primary purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects on safety of increases in the number of smaller cars on the highways. Traffic accident data for the period 1973-79 were analyzed to determine the accident severity for the different automobile classes, and this analysis showed that the smaller vehicles had a higher proportion of fatal and injury accidents that the other categories.The, accident data for 1980 were used to compare accident experience with regard to injury class of the occupants, roadway surface conditions, roadway character, light conditions, collision type, objects struck, and location of accident. Analysis showed that for total accidents per one thousand registered vehicles, the large cars had a higher rate (68) than either the subcompacts (43), compacts (45), or intermediate size vehicles (46). However, the subcompacts and compacts had higher percentages of fatalities and serious injuries to their occupants, and a higher proportion of such accidents occurred on wet, snowy, and icy surfaces. In addition, the smaller passenger vehicles had a higher incidence of overturning and rear-end accidents. The analysis suggests there will be significant increases in fatal and injury accidents in future years as the number of smaller vehicles increases. Thus, the report contains recommendations for changes in highway and vehicle design that will modify these adverse trends and reduce injuries and fatalities among drivers and passengers.Some of the recommendations can be implemented fairly quickly, but others will take longer. However, until changes are made, the accident severity for small cars will continue at a level above that for larger automobiles.

Authors:
Public Transportation and Planning Division

Keywords:
accident severity, accidents, analysis, collision, condition, data, design, highway, Highways, light, overturning, roadway, safety, Study, traffic, traffic accident data, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
This report describes the pavement management system developed by WSDOT staff over a period of five years. Both project-level and network-level pavement management are represented within the four broad areas of data processing which combine to constitute the foundation of the system.The design of a pavement data file is laid out together with the process of assembling it. Also shown are the methods used to analyze and convert the file data from pavement condition ratings to pavement performance curves for each project. The performance curves are then used, together with appropriate cost data, to determine the most cost-effective type and time to fix. The network-level program then summarized the need work for each year of a rehabilitation program. Mean are provided for adjusting the program to fit budget constraints or minimum acceptable levels of average pavement condition.It is concluded that the system, operating on biennial pavement condition ratings, provides a good solid framework for orderly analysis to estimate the economic benefits of the type, timing, and sequence of rehabilitation activities applied to a pavement.

Authors:
Nelson,Thomas L., LeClerc,R. V.

Keywords:
analysis, benefit, benefits, condition, cost, data, design, developed, development, foundation, framework, management, management system, methods, Operating, pavement, pavement condition, pavement data file, pavement management, pavement performance, performance, program, project, rehabilitation, System, Washington, Washington state, WSDOT

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Abstract:
This report describes the pavement system developed by staff over a period of five years. Both project-level and network-level pavement are represented within the four broad areas of data processing which combine to constitute the foundation of the system. The design of a pavement data file is laid out together with the process of assembling it. Also shown are the methods used to analyze and convert the file data pavement condition ratings to pavement performance curves for each project. The performance curves are then used, together with appropriate cost data, to determine the most cost-effective type and of fix. The network-level program then the needed work for each year of a rehabilitation program. Means are provided for adjusting the program to fit budget constraints or acceptable levels of average pavement condition It is concluded that the system, operating on biennial pavement condition ratings, provides a good solid framework for orderly analysis to estimate the economic benefits of the type, timing, and sequence of rehabilitation activities apply to a pavement.

Authors:
Nelson,Thomas L., LeClerc,R. V.

Keywords:
analysis, benefit, benefits, condition, cost, cost effective, data, design, developed, development, foundation, framework, management, management system, methods, Operating, pavement, pavement condition, pavement data file, pavement management, pavement performance, performance, program, project, rehabilitation, System, Washington, Washington state, WSDOT

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Abstract:
This report provides a summary of a laboratory study on sulfur extended asphalt paving mixtures. The following major features were included in the study: 1.Design of laboratory-experiment which included the use of mixtures which contained various amounts of sulfur, two viscosity levels of asphalt cement, and two of aggregate (basalt and granite).2. Evaluation of mixture design methods (Hveem and Marshal ). 3. Determination of optimum binder contents.4. Evaluation of mixture durability and aging characteristics.5. Development of revised mixture design criteria.

Authors:
Mahoney,J. P., Lary,J. A., Balgunaim,F., Lee,T. C.

Keywords:
aggregate, aging, asphalt, criteria, design, design criteria, development, durability, evaluation, extended asphalt, methods, mixture, performance, stiffness, Study, sulfur, viscosity

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Abstract:
This report summarizes the placement and performance of sulfur extended asphalt (SEA) paving mixtures at a highway test site (SR 270) near Pullman, Washington. The report includes a summary of the mixture and structure designs and construction details. This is followed by a discussion of the data collection and analysis accomplished over a three year evaluation period (1979 - 1982). A major experimental feature of the study was the use of 0/100 (conventional asphalt concrete), 30/70 and 40/60 SEA binder ratios (sulfur/asphalt ratios are expressed as weight percents) in the experimental paving mixtures.

Authors:
Mahoney,J. P.

Keywords:
analysis, asphalt, asphalt concrete, asphalt pavement, concrete, construction, data, data collection, data collection and analysis, design, evaluation, experimental, extended asphalt, highway, mixture, pavement, pavement performance, performance, Study, sulfur, Washington, weight

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Abstract:
This summary report provides an overview of the performance of sulfur extended asphalt (SEA) paving mixtures at the WSU Test Track (Pullman, WA). A brief description of the mix designs, pavement structural design, test track loading apparatus and test pavement configurations is followed by a description of selected test track data (accelerations, temperatures and stain measurements). Finally, a description of the fatigue relationships developed from the WSU Test Track data is presented. Included are laboratory fatigue results.

Authors:
Mahoney,J. P.

Keywords:
911, asphalt, asphalt pavement, construction, data, design, developed, evaluation, Executive, Executive Summary, extended asphalt, fatigue, mixture, pavement, pavement evaluation, pavement performance, performance, sulfur, temperature, test track

Abstract:
A five-year study was performed to compare conditions in the Pilchuck River before and after channel reconstruction associated with rerouting highway SR-2. The study focused on sediment particle-size analyses, benthic macroinvertebrates and fish. Substrates comparable le to control areas developedin all portions of the new channel within one year after construction. The available data on invertebrates and fish gave no indication of deterioration in diversity, quantity or size in the reconstructed channel. The report provides recommendations for further improvements in the design of stream channel changes should there be no alternative to their construction.

Authors:
Horner,R. R., Welch,Eugene B.

Keywords:
Alternative, Benthic Macroinvertabrates, accident rates, Channel, condition, construction, control, data, design, deterioration, fish, highway, impact, impacts, improvement, Interim, reconstruction, rivers, sediments

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Abstract:
This report summarizes the placement of sulfur extended asphalt (SEA) paving mixtures at two test sites near Pullman, Washington. One site was on an existing state highway and the other made use of the Washington State University Test Track. The report includes the preliminary mix designs, pavement thickness determination, construction details and initial performance data for the test pavements. A major experimental feature of the study was the use of 0/100 (conventional asphalt concrete), 30/70 and 40/60 SEA binder ratios in the experimental paving mixtures.

Authors:
Mahoney,J. P., Christensen,D. R., Terrel,R.

Keywords:
asphalt, asphalt concrete, asphalt pavement, concrete, construction, data, design, evaluation, experimental, extended asphalt, highway, mixture, pavement, pavement evaluation, pavement performance, pavements, performance, Study, sulfur, test track, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
Two forms of pavement distress were noted on recent asphalt concrete overlay projects. A general loss of wearing surface under traffic action, termed surface ravelling, was observed on three projects starting the first season after construction.Two forms of pavement distress were noted on recent asphalt concrete overlay projects. A general loss of wearing surface under traffic action, termed surface ravelling, was observed on three projects starting the first season after construction. A concentrated, local loss of surface material in narrow longitudinal strips, designated as strip ravel ing, was observed on four projects approximately the second season after completion. Construction record reviews and field testing and sampling of these projects along with four undistressed projects were made to define the construction methods and equipment used and to obtain samples from areas of good and bad pavement condition. These samples were tested to determine the strength of the compacted mix, and of the aggregate and asphalt constituents. Common factors from the projects showing surface ravelling were a thin lift pavement overlay placed late in the paving season with a tendency toward less than optimum asphalt content. The resulting pavement had high air void content and was readily abraded by traffic during ensuing severe winter weather. Recurrence of this type of problem can best be prevented by increased emphasis on proper compaction and mix design. Remedial work on the present projects should be directed toward a seal coat application. Strip ravelled projects were found to have similar pavement properties in ravel and non-ravel led sections and general to be within desirable limits. Lower strength in resilient modulus tests and physically observed asphalt stripping in the ravelled sections indicate a localized failure of the asphalt aggregate bond. The failure occurrence in narrow longitudinal strips indicates a cause associated with paving operations--possibly differential compaction or hydrocarbon contamination. Preventive measures should ensure uniform compaction and more thorough checking of stripping tendencies. Corrective measures will require continued patching and possibly removal and replacement of affected pavement.

Authors:
Gietz,R. H.

Keywords:
aggregate, asphalt, asphalt concrete, asphalt pavement, compaction, concrete, condition, construction, construction methods, contamination, design, Distress, investigaton, overlay, pavement, resilient modulus, sampling, season, strength, tests, traffic, winter

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Abstract:
The Central Avalanche Hazard Forecasting project had had two principal aims : The design and establishment of an avalanche data network and central avalanche and mountain weather forecasting facility to serve the highway passes and other hazard areas of the Cascade Mountains in Washington. Improvements in the practices of conventional avalanche forecasting and the introduction of new techniques in statistical analysis and pattern recognition. Achievement of the first aim has been described in previous Reports 23.2 and 23.3. This present Report 23.4 gives the results of fundamental research into avalanche forecasting theory and discusses the application of these results is to central avalanche forecasting for the Cascade Mountains of Western Washington .

Authors:
LaChapplle,E. R., Furguson,S. A., Marriott,R. T., Moore,M. B., Reanier,F. W., Sackett,E. M., Taylor,P. L.

Keywords:
analysis, avalanche, avalanche forecasting, snow, weather, data, design, facilities, forecasting, hazard, highway, project, research, Washington

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Abstract:
The Alternate Methods of Avalanche control project has been funded by the Washington State Highway Commission since August 1974 in order to develop simple, reliable and repeatable methods of triggering avalanche release which are free from the storage, handling and availability problems of explosives and artillery shells and which can be readily applied to avalanche paths typical to many smaller ones causing hazards for highways.The Alternate Methods of Avalanche Control project has been funded by the Washington State Highway Commission since August 1974 in order to develop simple, reliable and repeatable methods of triggering avalanche release which are free from the storage, and availability problems of explosives and artillery and which can readily be applied to avalanche paths typical of the many ones causing frequent hazards for highways. The research involved tests in both Washington and Colorado to permit evaluation of the control methods in diverse climates and snow conditions, leading to more generally applicable results than could be obtained at a single site. The technical and scientific aspects of the work in Colorado were coordinated by the San Juan Avalanche Project of the University of Colorado. Field work in Washington state and the general supervision of the program and the engineering design were carried out by the University of Washington Geophysics Program. The U.S. Forest Service at Utah, also joined in a cooperative test of our methods and equipment. This Final Report describes the tests and the results of the entire project.

Authors:
LaChapplle,E. R., Bell,D. B., Johnson,J. B., Lindsay,R. W., Sackett,E. M.

Keywords:
availability, avalanche, snow, weather, stress waves, condition, control, design, equipment, evaluation, hazard, highway, Highways, program, research, tests, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
From April through October 1977, a new sub surface irrigation system design was tested and evaluated in an applied situation. The purpose of this research was to study the practical application of the design and the collection of data for development of design, construction and maintenance guidelines. The study has proved the practical applicability of the "Sub Surface Infiltration System."

Authors:
Hietzman,Paul G.

Keywords:
construction, data, design, development, infiltration, maintenance, research, Sub-Surface, System, Tree Irrigation

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Abstract:
As part of their continuing effort to prolong the life of existing pavement systems, highway engineers must continue to improve upon design and rehabilitation methods. In past years, design methods based upon empericism have been employed with considerable success. As loading and materials change or become more complex, the older practices become less useful and a new approach undertaken. Throughout the U.S. and elsewhere, there has been emerging new technology often termed " rational " , "systematic", "mechanistic", and other terms used to describe new approaches to pavement analysis and design. Mostof these are based on elastic or viscoelastic layered representation of the pavement structure and have the potential to become powerful tools for the highway engineer. In recent years, the University of Washington has assisted the Washington State Highway Department on various research projects . One project resulted in a report that has been used to develop guidelines for allowable truck traffic through the concept of pavement damage and/or remaining life . The basis forth is report was the concept that pavement structures can be reasonably well represented by elastic layered systems. Analysis of the mechanistic behavior can then be used to predict pavement response and l i f e expectancy. As a result of this study and after discussions with Highway Department personnel, it was determined that the procedures, techniques, as well as other information used in the above report may be of further interest to them. In other words, the methods as well as results had potential utilization in a wide range of applications . As a result , a seminar program was set up whereby the writer would conduct or lead weekly discussion sessions on key topics.

Authors:
Terrel,R. L.

Keywords:
analysis, applications, behavior, damage, design, highway, materials, mechanistic, pavement, pavement damage, program, rehabilitation, remaining life, research, seminar, structures, systems, technology, traffic, truck, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
The objective of study was to develop criteria and procedures for the identification and measurement of social in transportation planning and the process by which such analyses are integrated into the decision-making process. The guidelines developed from this address several related but different parts of the total planning and design process. Two of the reports prepared as a part of this study are concerned with identifying and measuring social factors and conducting social and economic surveys to obtain necessary data. A third report is concerned with the development and implementation of involvement programs. The is made that an effective planning and design process must provide means by which the values and of residents of affected and users of transportation facilities can be incorporated in technical studies and the decision-making process. Two additional reports contain guidelines for the operation of interdisciplinary teams and team scheduling and management. The systematic interdisciplinary approach undertaken in the State of Washington provides a means by which technical data, values and opinions, and planning and design concepts and standards can all be evaluated by the team in reaching a solution to a problem.

Authors:
Iverson,E. A.

Keywords:
analysis, Community Involvement, Social Factors, Socio-Economic Surveys, Inter-disciplinary Team Operation and Management, criteria, data, design, design process, developed, development, facilities, impacts, management, planning, program, scheduling, survey, Surveys, transportation, transportation planning, Washington

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Abstract:
The purpose of this study is to establish guidelines and procedures for the measurement of the social effects of transportation systems and facilities on both a regional and community or neighborhood level. This coincides with the increased emphasis on human factors in the planning and design of transportation systems and facilities, which has necessitated the development of a systematic approach to gathering social data and developing normative standards. In part of this increased emphasis has been mandated by Federal statutes such as the National Environmental Policy Act o f 1969 and the Intergovernmental Act of 1968.A detailed examination of the seven-fold classification scheme of social factors and an emphasis on the methodologies used to evaluate social impacts is discussed. Emphasis is placed on the analytical framework utilizing the major phases of inventing existing social conditions, identifying potential changes and measurement of probable impacts. From this analysis a systematic approach to identifying and measuring social impact in transportation planning is put forth, for use by those assigned this responsibility.

Authors:
Social and Econonomic Planning Section of the WA State Department of Highways

Keywords:
analysis, condition, data, design, development, environmental, facilities, framework, human factors, impact, impacts, Measurement of Social Impact, social factors, community identity, community values and desires, community cohesion, disruption, displacement, relocation, minority interest, methodology, planning, policy, systems, transportation, transportation planning

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Abstract:
The purpose of this study is to produce guidelines that provide specific, operational and action oriented assistance to those responsible for planning and transportation surveys as a community involvement tool. A considerable amount of recent transportation survey experience along with the provision of technical information from private urban opinion survey organizations was researched and analyzed for inclusion in these guidelines. By discussing and comparing the relative merits of different survey techniques, the sampling process, questionnaire design, and examples of past surveys, these guidelines cover the theoretical as well as the practical side of the surveying process. The presentation of this information is in such a that it can be used by field staff to insure that this vital element of a community involvement program can be performed in an efficient and effective manner.

Authors:
Social and Econonomic Planning Section of the WA State Department of Highways

Keywords:
Community Involvement, Citizen Input, Survey Methodology, Limitations of Surveys, Survey Techniques, Sampling Process, Questionnaire Design, Random Cluster Sampling, design, planning, program, sampling, survey, Surveys, transportation, urban

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Abstract:
This report completely describes the instrumentation on the drawspan of this Evergreen Point Bridge. The design and construction of the data recording system, with the complete calibration of the measurement and collection system is given. Initial data collection and preliminary analysis is set out. The analysis was subsequently abandoned, the data was retained.

Authors:
Brown,C. B.

Keywords:
analysis, Annual, bridge, calibration, construction, data, data collection, design, fatigue, maintenance, reliability, System, wind

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Abstract:
This research project was to evaluate the different variables in photogrammetric practice, which include targeting, film and development process, camera platform and achievable accuracy.Design criteria and standards have been established, which include the manufacturing of camera suspension for helicopter from both a theoretical and practical point of view. The testing of these standards and design criteria includes a large number of data. Thus, they have a high statistical probability of being correct. The project has proved that an all-time photography is possible with the proper selection of camera platform, and that the use of very low flight photography will enable the Highway Department to extend the use of photogrammetric measurement.

Authors:
Veress,S. A., Aramaki,A. A., Hall,J. K., Takamoto,T.

Keywords:
camera, criteria, data, design, design criteria, development, helicopter, camera suspension, target, shutter, vibration, accuracy, air speed, residual errors, highway, research

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Abstract:
This research project was to evaluate the different variables in photogrammetric practice, which include targeting, film and development process, camera platform and achievable accuracy.Design criteria and standards have been established, which include the manufacturing of camera suspension for helicopter from both a theoretical and practical point of view. The testing of these standards and design criteria includes a large number of data. Thus, they have a high statistical probability of being correct. The project has proved that an all-time photography is possible with the proper selection of camera platform, and that the use of very low flight photography will enable the Highway Department to extend the use of photogrammetric measurement.

Authors:
Takamoto,T.

Keywords:
camera, criteria, data, design, design criteria, development, highway, Highways, research, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
A collection of reports about avalanche conditions and avalanche prevention measures on Washington mountain highways in general and to the North Cascade Highway in particular involving various aspects of creep deformation and glide of the snow cover as they affect avalanche defense structure design; reconnaissance of a proposed new highway route through the Cascade Mountains and a continuing study of the relationship between synoptic winter weather patterns and the formation and distribution of snow avalanches in the Cascades.The reports are entitled:1. Effect o f Glide and Creep on Rigid Obstacles by C.B. Brown and R.J. Evans.2. Creep and the Snow-Earth Interface Condition in the Seasonal AlpineSnow-Pack by D. M. McClung.3. In- Situ Investigations o f the Temperature Dependence o f the Creep ofLow Density Snow by D.M. McClung4. Naches Tunnel Avalanche Reconnaissance by E. R. LaChapelle.5. Investigation of Synoptic and Surface Weather Situations Leadinq toAvalanche Cycles in the Washinqton Cascades for the 1973-74 winter by M. B. Moore.

Authors:
Moore,M. B., McClung,D. L., LaChapplle,E. R., Brown,C., Evans,R. J., LaChapplle,E. R.

Keywords:
avalanche, Avalanche Forecasting, Avalanches, Cascade, condition, creep, density, design, glide, highway, Highways, North, North Cascade, seasonal, snow, Study, temperature, Washington, weather hazards, winter

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Abstract:
A collection of reports on several different aspects of avalanche formation. The reports are entitled: 1. Some Considerations for Avalanche Defense Design for the Washington Cascades. 2. Incorporation of Glide and Creep Measurements into Snow Slab Mechanics. 3. Avalanches and Synoptic Weather Situations in the Cascades during the Winters of 1971-72 and 1972-73. 4. Indication of Snow Avalanche Periodicity Through Interpretation of Vegetation Patterns in the North Cascades, Washington. 5. A Visit to the Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research. 6. Decision Methods

Authors:
LaChapplle,E. R., Brown,C. B., Evans,R. J., Fox,T., Smith,L., McClung,D. L.

Keywords:
avalanche, snow, decisions, weather, vegetation, creep, glide, dendrochronology, avalanches, Cascade, design, methods, North, North Cascade, research, Study, Washington, winter

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Abstract:
This Summary Report synthesizes the work on avalanche control carried out at the University of Washington from 1970 through 1974. Five problem areas are addressed: 1. Identification of avalanche paths. 2. Description of historical frequency and size of avalanches. 3 Prediction of avalanche. 4. Identification of control methods. 5. Inclusion of control and prediction schemes in highway design and operation.

Authors:
LaChapplle,E. R., Brown,C. B., Evans,R. J.

Keywords:
avalanche, snow, decisions, weather, vegetation, creep, glide, avalanche forecasting, control, design, highway, highway design, methods, prediction, Washington

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Abstract:
Federal and State laws require highway departments to prepare statements assessing the impact that proposed highway improvements or construction may have on the environment. An important consideration in the preparation of an impact statement is the anticipated effect the proposed activity will have on air quality since highway transportation is a source of several major air pollutants: particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and photochemical oxidants which are formed in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight. Comprehensive physical studies to predict the air quality impact at proposed sites are generally prohibitive due to the time required to obtain suitable data, the cost of such studies and the number of impact statements that must be considered by most highway departments.Methods have been developed to predict the air quality impact of new highway construction through the use of mathematical atmospheric diffusion models. Once they are properly calibrated these models can be used to test alternative locations and designs. Basically models use meteorological conditions and emission rates to predict downwind concentrations as illustrated in Figure 1.The principal objective of this research project has been to conduct a search of the literature to identify state-of-the-art air quality predictive schemes applicable to motor vehicle transportation. The available models have been analyzed in detail and evaluated in terms of selected characteristics that serve to describe the predictive capabilities of each. Limitations in the models have also been noted where appropriate.Section 2.0 o f this report describes the methods used in conducting the research. Sections 3.0 and 4.0 present the models analyzed and a general discussion of applicability, in both narrative and tabular form. Section 5.0 summarizes the study and presents the recommendations for future consideration.

Authors:
Rossano,A. T., Lamb,Donna V., Badgley,Franklin

Keywords:
air quality, Alternative, carbon monoxide, Concentrations, condition, construction, cost, data, design, environment, highway, highway construction, Highways, hydrocarbons, impact, model, modeling, models, nitrogen, particulate matter, Pollutants, quality, research, state-of-the-art, transportation, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
In many parts of the world, the design of flexible pavement is still based on empirical methods which have developed from engineering experience. These empirical methods cannot be extrapolated beyond their limits without full scale trials to prove their applicability. In recent years, however, the increase of traffic, both in volume and axle loads, has led to the failure of many roads previously considered well designed. For this reason, therefore, researchers realized that a closer look at the pavement materials was desirable in order to develop a rational design procedure. Due to the complexity of characterizing pavement materials, and the limitations of instrumentation, much of the reported work offered little help in changing design practice. This is, perhaps, due to many simplifying assumptions which had to be introduced in the experimental procedure as well as the interpretation of the test results. Recently, however, there has been a sharp advancement in test instrumentation and an outstanding progress in processing the experimental results. This has been reflected through many fine investigations and has increased the demand for more improvements. An asphalt pavement is a complex structure whose function is to provide a suitable surface for a highway, an airport, or other off-highway facility. The load of a vehicle or an aircraft is transmitted through the multilayered system of processed materials which have different mechanical properties. The stress distribution within this system is highly complex and to a large extent is dependent on the relative stiffnesses of the individual layers.

Authors:
Terrel,Ronald L., Awad,S.

Keywords:
asphalt, asphalt pavement, axle, base, behavior, demand, design, developed, experimental, facilities, fine, highway, improvement, loads, materials, methods, pavement, stiffness, stresses, System, traffic, volume

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Abstract:
A study was conducted of rest area wastewater disposal problems and related factors for the Washington State Highway Commission during the period of June - December 1971. This report on the study is intended to present an evaluation of present rest area wastewater systems together with feasibility analyses of alternative methods of waste handling. It is not intended to be a preliminary engineering design report.Data are presented on rest area problems as reported to or observed by the writers on field visitations. This is followed by discussions of criteria and standards presently used in rest area design together with data on water usage for those rest areas where "complete" data were available. Laboratory analyses were made on rest area wastewaters and on a certain additive, " Bacterial Waste Disposer", that has been used in some of the rest areas. A discussion is included on possible future trends and uses of rest areas and the need to minimize water usage. Chapter XI1 contains the principal thrust of the report in its discussion of possible rest area wastewater disposal methods with an evaluation and some relative cost data. With increasingly stringent requirements for wastewater disposal, it seems apparent that rest area wastewaters must continue to be disposed of on highway property. If not, the Department would find itself, in most instances, with the task of operating continuously and effectually some rather complicated treatment systems that require trained operators, operational reports and effluent analyses, and systems that are not usually amenable to the flow characteristics of rest area wastewaters. Since much national attention is being given to these problems, it is hoped that new or improved treatment schemes may be developed in the future that will be appropriate for rest areas. An intent of this study has thus been to suggest means of wastewater disposal, presently available that would offer an improvement to the septic tank drain field method of disposal.Conclusions and recommendations drawn from the study are as follows:1. There is no question but that septic tank- drain field disposal systems would, because of their simplicity, be the preferred method of disposal if their installation were applicable to most rest areas and if they would, from past experiences here and elsewhere give some assurance of a freedom from operating difficulties over a period of just a few years.

Authors:
Seabloom,Robert W.

Keywords:
additive, Alternative, cost, criteria, data, design, developed, disposal, evaluation, flow, highway, improvement, ITS, methods, Operating, rest area, rest areas, Study, System, systems, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
At the request of the Washington Department of Highways a comprehensive study was conducted of the exposures of toll collectors to carbon monoxide at the Evergreen Point Bridge spanning Lake Washington between Seattle and Bellevue.The first phase of the study consisted of designing, installing and operating an automatic, continuous carbon monoxide monitoring system to establish typical air quality patterns in and around the toll booths.the second phase consisted of developing a prototype toll booth positive ventilation system. Air, which is introduced through a vertical diffuser situated at one wall of the booth, travels horizontally across the booth and out the door. Parametric studies of sources and rates of ventilation air, diffuser design and other toll booth modifications were conducted in the laboratory. Subsequently these modifications were installed and investigated at an operating booth at the toll plaza. Concentrations of carbon monoxide in the collectors breathing zone were reduced to acceptable levels. Methodologies and results of these systems are described, and design recommendations for the control system are offered.

Authors:
Rossana,T. A., Hall,F. A.

Keywords:
air quality, bridge, carbon monoxide, Concentrations, control, design, exposure, highway, Highways, methodology, monitoring, Operating, quality, seattle, System, systems, travel, Washington

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Abstract:
The purpose of this study was to investigate the acoustic effects of two topping materials used on bridges in the Seattle area. One material was applied to the bridge on Interstate-5 which crosses the Duwamish River. It is an English product called Sprag-Grip which is supposed to have very good anti-skid properties, as well as the ability to stick to the road in thin layers thus making it suitable for the repair of worn surfaces. The other material is an epoxy -asphalt mixture which was applied to some sections of the Evergreen Point Floating Bridge over Lake Washington, particularly over sections where worn grating was causing excessive noise. Hopefully, this substance will be capable of long-term sticking in relatively thin layers. Of the two materials, it was found that the epoxy-asphalt topping on the Evergreen Point Floating Bridge was by far the quieter, and, at least as newly applied, proved to be very quiet at the road/tire interface. It is likely that this good acoustic performance is due to the smoothness of the surface rather than directly to the fact that the material contains epoxy. The role of the epoxy would be as an adhesive and to resist wear so that its original acoustic performance could be maintained for a considerable length of time. Spray-Grip, on the other hand, although slightly quieter than the rutted, worn roadway, was not as quiet as the original unworn road surface. Experimental Procedures The primary contribution of a road surface to the noise 'radiating from a vehicle is in the noise emitted at the road/tire interface; therefore, the major thrust of this effort was directed toward measuring this effect. There also were some measurements of community noise levels before and after the resurfacing of the bridges. The tire noise tests were taken on the right rear wheel of a Laboratory station wagon upon which a new tire was mounted (a Pennsylvania Patrol Special, size 8. 55-15). (The tread design and depth of this tire are shown on page 2. ) This tire was mounted on a wheel and used on the vehicle only daring tests. Between tests it was stored so that unnecessary wear would not change its acoustic character-teristics. The noise pickup device was a specially baffled microphone located about 7 inches from the road/tire interface by a bracket holding it on the outside of the tire. One of the major problems in making noise measurements of this type is to have a microphone that will pick up only tire noise and be baffled from wind noise. This problem has been solved by a microphone baffling system especially designed by this Laboratory.

Authors:
Foss,Rene N.

Keywords:
asphalt, bridge, bridges, community noise, design, Epoxy, experimental, floating bridge, highway, ITS, materials, mixture, noise, Noise Levels, noise measurements, performance, repair, roadway, seattle, Study, System, tests, tire, tire noise, Washington, wind, Wind Noise

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Abstract:
The purpose of this study was threefold: (1) Develop empirical equivalencies from all four rings, (2) develop a design method for overlays based on field deflections; and (3) evaluate the validity of data obtained from instrumentations in terms of n-layer elastic theory and then develop theoretical equivalencies.This was done. Field equivalencies were developed and they indicated that superiority of the treated base materials over the untreated. A design method was developed which could be used for predicting when an overlay was needed and what thickness was needed to withstand certain equivalent wheel loads and deflections.Using computer programs for n-layer elastic theory developed by Chevron Research Company, deflection stresses and strains were computed and compared with field data. Assumptions about the material behavior and condition were made based on laboratory data obtained from The Asphalt Institute and field knowledge, and were used to help predict the behavior of pavements. The results were encouraging and indicate that field measurements generally were comparable with elastic layer theory predictions. This will help to develop and modify existing design limits for stresses, strains and deflection for future work.Equivalencies based on theoretical deflections, stresses and strains indicate the difficulty of assigning precise values. These values also indicate the superiority of treated materials over the untreated materials.

Authors:
Krukar,M., Cook,J. C.

Keywords:
analysis, asphalt, base, base materials, behavior, computer, computer program, condition, data, design, equivalencies, evaluation, experimental, loads, materials, overlay, overlays, pavement, pavements, prediction, program, research, strains, stresses, volume, wheel load

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Abstract:
The Impulse Index as a measure of pavement condition was previously described in a report of the Research Division of Washington State University entitled, "Pavement Deflection Measurement - Dynamic-A Feasibility Study, Final Report, June 1970," by Frank W. Brands, P. E. and John C. Cook, P. E.Implementation of automatic data acquisition using impulse testing requires the development of a mechanical device to set an instrument package on the pavement, deliver an impulse of energy, and retrieve the instrument package. This is to be done automatically with the vehicle proceeding down the highway. This report describes a test model built to facilitate the determination of data necessary for design of a prototype vehicle.

Authors:
Brands,F., Cook,C. J.

Keywords:
condition, data, design, development, Energy, highway, impulse index, index, model, pavement, pavement deflection, research, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
Using full-scale construction equipment and truck loadings on a circular track of 260 feet circumference, evaluation of various base thicknesses and types has been accomplished in this first of a series of tests. Fractured and non-fractured aggregatre, treated and untreated bases, asphaltic and portland cement type bases are used. Results of the firest ring indicate type of failure under varied enviornmental conditions with pavement systems subjected to millions of load applications. Difficulties in determining comparative equivalencies are discussed. Instrumentations used and possibilities for future use in rational design are reported.

Authors:
Riedesel,G. A.

Keywords:
applications, base, condition, construction, design, equipment, evaluation, experimental, pavement, research, systems, test track, tests, truck, truck loadings, volume

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Abstract:
Alternatives to control wastewater odors on board Washington State ferries and during discharge of the wastewater to sewerage systems were formulated, evaluated and tested.Holding tank aeration, using compressed air injection to a recycle line is an effective method. Sulfide is microbially oxidized, and anaerobic sulfate reducing bacteria are suppressed. Engineering and lab studies and a simulation model of the process were used to estimate suitable design parameters and costs. A prototype installation is recommended for optimization of operation. The addition of slug dosages of H202 was also found to be effective in laboratory and on-board vessels. The twice daily dose of about 50 mg/ should be stirred into the holding tank using recycle mixing. Peroxide was found to oxidize sulfide, increase dissolved oxygen and suppress sulfate reducing bacteria. Bottom suction sludge hoppers must be installed to prevent accumulation of sludge in tank bottom.Other alternatives, including chlorine addition, pH increase, iron sulfide precipitation and toxic odor control compounds, were found ineffective and/or uneconomic.Other finds are that sulfide is produced primarily from reduction of sulfates from the saltwater flushing water. Production is primarily in the slime layer on the bottom and sides of the holding tanks. On-shore force mains are sites of sulfide production during stagnant periods between tank pumpouts. These force mains should tanks was evaluated for hydraulic, organic loading, and salt toxicity effects on existing and planned sewage plants. No significant impacts were found.

Authors:
Sylvester,R. O., Ferguson,J. F., Parish,K. B., Brown,D. W., Leuelid,S.

Keywords:
control, cost, costs, design, disposal, dissolved oxygen, effects, ferries, ferry, impact, impacts, line, Marine wastewater holding tanks, odor control, wastewater aeration, hydrogen peroxide, model, Precipitation, salt, sewerage, Study, System, systems, Toxicity, vessel, vessels, Washington, Washington state

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