Abstract:
The results of a 2-year project to investigate the feasibility of automatically detecting precipitation type for highway hazard-reduction programs in the Cascade Mountains of Washington State are reported. The project investigated available technology for remote identification of precipitation type, selected a suitable sensor for testing, and compared field and laboratory tests with visual observations. Modifications of the hardware and software were conducted to optimize the use of precipitation identification (PID) sensors in operational hazard-reduction programs.A PID sensor was installed at the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) observation station at Snoqualmie Pass, and was connected to automatic data-logging equipment. Another PID was equipped for mobile use and tested at mountain sites in Alaska, other areas of Washington, and in Japan.Data from each sensor were compared against visual observations. The results of this analysis showed adequate performance from the PID. The analysis also showed that the PID data can be a valuable asset to the hazard mitigation programs along mountain highways, particularly when combined with data-loggers, totaling precipitation gages, and computer graphics.

Authors:
Ferguson,S. A.

Keywords:
precipitation identification, rain, snow, hazard, avalanche

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Abstract:
As part of the pooled fund research project, the Washington State Department of Transportation was selected to field-test approximately 100 tons of Calcium Magnesium Acetate (CMA) to evaluate its potential as a deicing chemical with direct comparison to salt (Sodium Chloride) and Urea. Evaluation included all aspects of storage, handling, use, and performance. CMA was applied whenever necessary at each test site, using the same application rates as presently used for salt. Typical equipment consisted of front dump trucks with the spinner ahead of the rear axle, and rear discharge hopper trucks. All equipment was used without modification.The use of CMA at the beginning of a storm reduced the amount of bonding of snow to the roadway surface. This effect of keeping the roadway surface bare for longer periods of time reduced the cost of snow fighting. This was accomplished with chemical application rate of 125 Ibs. per lane mile.The addition of sand to CMA reduced the problems of dust, caking and uneven distribution. The sand provided moisture and weight to the application resulting in a smoother, more even distribution. CMA spread above was excessively dusty creating problems in the spreading and distribution. CMA is slower to react on compact snow and ice than salt or Urea. This delay in reaction time was not considered a handicap in the overall snow fighting procedure.The conclusion was that CMA shows promise as a deicing-melting chemical. The problems of dust, light-weight and brittleness need further work and may be significantly alleviated by development of a hydrated compound.

Authors:
Ernst,D. D.

Keywords:
Alternative, axle, chloride, cost, Deicing (CMA Research), development, evaluation, field test, ITS, lightweight, performance, research, roadway, salt, snow, transportation, truck, trucks, Washington, Washington state, weight

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Abstract:
Hoarfrost formation in a maritime inversion climate has been studied via inferred snow/air interface temperatures, vertical temperature profiles of the interface, and application of dew point hygrometry. Two dominant growth situations have been discerned. The first involved highly saturated air near the interface and strong radiational cooling of the snow surface, producing a wide variety of crystal sizes (1-6mm). The second showed strong radiational cooling of the snow surface in an altered environment with secondary introduction of water vapour from the presence of supercooled clouds. The latter often showed accelerated growth, the formation of large dendritic crystals (8-15mm) in short time periods (less than four hours). Subsequent snowfalls of increasing water equivalent on surface hoar beds resulted in numerous direct action avalanches. Threshold crystal size for bed layer weakness varied widely (0.7-15mm) and was related to old snow surface roughness and new snow precipitation characteristics.

Authors:
Breyfogle,Steven R.

Keywords:
avalanche, environment, frost, hoarfrost, profile, roughness, snow, temperature

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Abstract:
The Central Avalanche Hazard Forecasting project had had two principal aims : The design and establishment of an avalanche data network and central avalanche and mountain weather forecasting facility to serve the highway passes and other hazard areas of the Cascade Mountains in Washington. Improvements in the practices of conventional avalanche forecasting and the introduction of new techniques in statistical analysis and pattern recognition. Achievement of the first aim has been described in previous Reports 23.2 and 23.3. This present Report 23.4 gives the results of fundamental research into avalanche forecasting theory and discusses the application of these results is to central avalanche forecasting for the Cascade Mountains of Western Washington .

Authors:
LaChapplle,E. R., Furguson,S. A., Marriott,R. T., Moore,M. B., Reanier,F. W., Sackett,E. M., Taylor,P. L.

Keywords:
analysis, avalanche, avalanche forecasting, snow, weather, data, design, facilities, forecasting, hazard, highway, project, research, Washington

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Abstract:
The Alternate Methods of Avalanche control project has been funded by the Washington State Highway Commission since August 1974 in order to develop simple, reliable and repeatable methods of triggering avalanche release which are free from the storage, handling and availability problems of explosives and artillery shells and which can be readily applied to avalanche paths typical to many smaller ones causing hazards for highways.The Alternate Methods of Avalanche Control project has been funded by the Washington State Highway Commission since August 1974 in order to develop simple, reliable and repeatable methods of triggering avalanche release which are free from the storage, and availability problems of explosives and artillery and which can readily be applied to avalanche paths typical of the many ones causing frequent hazards for highways. The research involved tests in both Washington and Colorado to permit evaluation of the control methods in diverse climates and snow conditions, leading to more generally applicable results than could be obtained at a single site. The technical and scientific aspects of the work in Colorado were coordinated by the San Juan Avalanche Project of the University of Colorado. Field work in Washington state and the general supervision of the program and the engineering design were carried out by the University of Washington Geophysics Program. The U.S. Forest Service at Utah, also joined in a cooperative test of our methods and equipment. This Final Report describes the tests and the results of the entire project.

Authors:
LaChapplle,E. R., Bell,D. B., Johnson,J. B., Lindsay,R. W., Sackett,E. M.

Keywords:
availability, avalanche, snow, weather, stress waves, condition, control, design, equipment, evaluation, hazard, highway, Highways, program, research, tests, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
This report reviews the second year of work on the Washington State Highway Commission Department of Highways project Central Avalanche Hazard Forecasting (WSDH Agreement Y-1700) to test the feasibility and effectiveness of central avalanche forecasting for the Cascade Mountain passes and adjacent area. The possibilities and techniques for improving both mountain weather and related avalanche forecasts for use by WSDH during winter operation in the mountain passes were further explored, and, secondarily, the usefulness of an area wide forecasting service to other cooperating agencies. This report defines and significant changes from the first year of operation in collection, assimilation or transmission of snow, weather and avalanche data by the Forecasting Office, and details modifications of the data network itself, especially new instrumentation and telemetry equipment . Weather and avalanche forecasting accuracy and reliability are assessed by comparing daily weather and avalanche forecasts with file d data. The conceptual framework and analytical methods used by forecasters to deduce current and probable future avalanche activity from the available data network input and current and extrapolated meteorological data are presented. A general preliminary guide to forecasting methodology for the Washington Cascades is defined and discussed.

Authors:
LaChapplle,E. R., Moore,M. B., Reanier,F. W., Sackett,E. M.

Keywords:
agencies, avalanche, avalanche forecasting, snow, weather, data, effectiveness, equipment, forecasting, framework, hazard, highway, Highways, methodology, methods, project, reliability, review, Washington, Washington state, winter

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Abstract:
This report summarizes the first year of activity under Washington State Department of Highways project Central Avalanche Hazard Forecasting (Agreement Y-1700) to test the feasibility and effectiveness of central avalanche forecasting for the Cascade Mountain Passes and adjacent territory . This project explores thepossibilities of improving both mountain weather and related avalanche forecasts for use by the WSDH during winter operations in the mountain passes, and, secondarily, explores the usefulness of an area-wide forecasting service to other, cooperating agencies. The eventual aim of this work is to establish thetechnical and administrative framework for an operational, on-going mountain weather and avalanche forecasting service for Western Washington under the joint support of interested public agencies.

Authors:
LaChapplle,E. R., Moore,M. B., Reanier,F. W.

Keywords:
agencies, avalanche, avalanche forecasting, snow, weather, effectiveness, forecasting, framework, hazard, highway, highways, Interim, project, public, Washington, Washington state, winter

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Abstract:
A collection of reports resulting from the second year's study. Reports are entitled:1. Air Bag System by E.R. LaChapelle, C.R. Morig and P.L. Taylor 2. Gas Exploder System by E.R. LaChapelle, C.R. Morig, and P.L. Taylor 3. Vibrator Tests by E.R. LaChapelle, C.R. Morig and P.L. Taylor 4. Mechanical Resonance of Snow by J.B. Johnson 5. Interface Modification Field Tests by E. R. LaChapelle 6. Approximate Solutions for the Interruption of the Creep and Glide of a snowpack by Rigid Structures by J.A. Langdon

Authors:
LaChapplle,E. R., Johnson,J. B., Langdon,J. A., Morig,C. R.

Keywords:
avalanche, snow, weather, creep, glide, control, field test, interim, structures, tests

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Abstract:
A collection of reports resulting from the first year's study Alternate Methods of Avalanche Control. The reports are entitled:1. Air Bag System by E. R. LaChappelle and P.L. Taylor2. Gas Exploder System by E. R. LaChappelle and P. L. Taylor3. Snow Behavior Behind a Continuous Avalanche Defense Structure by J.A. Langdon.4. Interface Modification Field Tests by E. R. LaChappelle5. Mechanical Resonance of Snow by J. B. Johnson and R. J. Evans6. The 1974-75 Winter by M. B. Moore

Authors:
Brown,C. B., Evans,R. J., Johnson,B., Langdon,A., Moore,B., Taylor,L.

Keywords:
alternative, avalanche, avalanche forecasting, snow, weather, creep, glide, behavior, control, field test, interim, tests, winter

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Abstract:
A collection of reports about avalanche conditions and avalanche prevention measures on Washington mountain highways in general and to the North Cascade Highway in particular involving various aspects of creep deformation and glide of the snow cover as they affect avalanche defense structure design; reconnaissance of a proposed new highway route through the Cascade Mountains and a continuing study of the relationship between synoptic winter weather patterns and the formation and distribution of snow avalanches in the Cascades.The reports are entitled:1. Effect o f Glide and Creep on Rigid Obstacles by C.B. Brown and R.J. Evans.2. Creep and the Snow-Earth Interface Condition in the Seasonal AlpineSnow-Pack by D. M. McClung.3. In- Situ Investigations o f the Temperature Dependence o f the Creep ofLow Density Snow by D.M. McClung4. Naches Tunnel Avalanche Reconnaissance by E. R. LaChapelle.5. Investigation of Synoptic and Surface Weather Situations Leadinq toAvalanche Cycles in the Washinqton Cascades for the 1973-74 winter by M. B. Moore.

Authors:
Moore,M. B., McClung,D. L., LaChapplle,E. R., Brown,C., Evans,R. J., LaChapplle,E. R.

Keywords:
avalanche, Avalanche Forecasting, Avalanches, Cascade, condition, creep, density, design, glide, highway, Highways, North, North Cascade, seasonal, snow, Study, temperature, Washington, weather hazards, winter

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Abstract:
A collection of reports on several different aspects of avalanche formation. The reports are entitled: 1. Some Considerations for Avalanche Defense Design for the Washington Cascades. 2. Incorporation of Glide and Creep Measurements into Snow Slab Mechanics. 3. Avalanches and Synoptic Weather Situations in the Cascades during the Winters of 1971-72 and 1972-73. 4. Indication of Snow Avalanche Periodicity Through Interpretation of Vegetation Patterns in the North Cascades, Washington. 5. A Visit to the Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research. 6. Decision Methods

Authors:
LaChapplle,E. R., Brown,C. B., Evans,R. J., Fox,T., Smith,L., McClung,D. L.

Keywords:
avalanche, snow, decisions, weather, vegetation, creep, glide, dendrochronology, avalanches, Cascade, design, methods, North, North Cascade, research, Study, Washington, winter

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Abstract:
This Summary Report synthesizes the work on avalanche control carried out at the University of Washington from 1970 through 1974. Five problem areas are addressed: 1. Identification of avalanche paths. 2. Description of historical frequency and size of avalanches. 3 Prediction of avalanche. 4. Identification of control methods. 5. Inclusion of control and prediction schemes in highway design and operation.

Authors:
LaChapplle,E. R., Brown,C. B., Evans,R. J.

Keywords:
avalanche, snow, decisions, weather, vegetation, creep, glide, avalanche forecasting, control, design, highway, highway design, methods, prediction, Washington

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Abstract:
This study was conducted to collect data on the operational characteristics of highway, snow, and studded snow tires and other winter traction aids. The objective of the study was to perform various vehicle maneuvers to evaluate the tire characteristics on wet and dry pavement surfaces. Tests took place on the Washington State Patrol Driver Training Course at Sanderson Field, located west of Shelton, Washington. The testing was done with the cooperation of the Washington State Patrol who furnished personnel and equipment to assist in this research effort.This test maneuvers evaluated during the study are as follows:Test No. 1 Maneuvering (Serpentine Course)Test No. 2 Hairpin CurveTest No. 3 High Speed Lane ChangeTest No. 4 Locked-Wheel StopIn addition to the three types described above, other new traction type products and tires were evaluated. These consisted of studded snow tires with "Norfin" studs, and Garnet impregnated snow tires. Studded tires on all four wheels were also evaluated, at the request of the Washington State Patrol. This combination is used by Troopers assigned to mountain highway passes and areas where there is a large buildup of snow and ice during the winter. This report consists of two areas of evaluation. One involves tire combinations (front and rear) and the other is the evaluation of individual tire types. In addition to these two areas, a separate section is devoted to the tire and vehicle characteristics of Washington State Patrol's vehicle when compared with a Department of Highway's Motor Pool Vehicle. Included also is the test vehicles' description.

Authors:
Toney,Carl A.

Keywords:
data, equipment, evaluation, highway, No Keywords found in report, pavement, pavement surface, research, snow, speed, studded tire, studded tires, studs, tests, tire, tires, traction, training, Washington, Washington state, winter

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Abstract:
The objectives of this research are two-fold: 1) to identify characteristics of recreational trips, and 2) to identify factors influencing the distribution of recreational trips. Characteristics of recreational trips have been identified on the basis of data collected from different state agencies in the State of Washington. Seven recreational trip purposes which are characteristic for the State of Washington have been identified in this study: 1) camping trips, 2) hunting trips 3) fishing trips, 4) visiting beaches and clamming, 5) snow skiing, 6) driving for pleasure and sightseeing, and 7) others.The analysis has been performed basically for the spatial and temporal distribution of recreational trips. Spatial distribution relates to the location of the recreational opportunities which can clearly be distinct for each of the trip purposes and is further characterized by the trip-length frequency connected with each of these trip purposes. Temporal distribution is related primarily to the seasons within which the activity corresponding to the trip purpose can be pursued.A further reason for classifying recreational trips into these seven purposes is the difference in travel behavior that can be observed in connection with trip purposes. For example, hunting, fishing, and snow skiing are trips with a distinct destination, and the trip maker tends to select the shortest route to his destination in order to minimize the travel time. Travel to the trip destination is not, therefore, an essential part of the recreation experience. On the other hand, driving for pleasure and sightseeing creates different travel behavior.

Authors:
Leonhardt,K.

Keywords:
agencies, analysis, behavior, data, objectives, recreation, Recreational travel, research, season, snow, travel, travel behavior, travel patterns, travel time, trip length, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
This report presents some data obtained from testing twenty-two different types of overlays on three concentric tracks at the G.A. Riedesel Pavement Testing Facility at Washington State University. Six different passenger winter tires were tested, including unstudded, a garnet dust snow retread, and four different types of studs. The data represents a testing period from November 20, 1972 to February 20, 1973 and a total 300,000 revolutions, that is 900,000 wheel applications on the inside track and 300,000 wheel applications on the outside track.The results reveal that the different polymer, concretes show the least wear, and that rubber additives improved the performance of some of the asphalt concrete overlays. The type #2 stud continually showed less wear than the other types of studs. Comparisons with the previous ring reveals that the present ring overlays showed less wear, and that stud protrusions are much less. A comparison and discussion of the results from both rings a t this wheel application range is presented. The results from the present data are also discussed. The results are tentative and may change as the present test continues.

Authors:
Krukar,M., Cook,J. C.

Keywords:
applications, asphalt, asphalt concrete, concrete, concrete overlays, data, effects, facilities, Interim, overlay, overlays, pavement, Pavement overlays, performance, Phase II, polymer, rubber, snow, Studded, studded tire, studs, tire, tires, Washington, Washington state, winter

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Abstract:
An interim report of the second year of a three-year study of avalanche hazards along Washington mountain highways is presented. Applicable snow, avalanche and weather data for 1971-72 are given. Also included is a theoretical treatment o f the stress analysis of slab avalanches and a bibliography of snow clearing technology.

Authors:
LaChapplle,E. R., Brown,C. B., Evans,R. J.

Keywords:
analysis, Annual, avalanche, Avalanche control, Washington mountain highways, Snow and weather data, Snow clearing technology, Avalanches, control, data, hazard, highway, Highways, Interim, methods, snow, stresses, Study, technology, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
This report presents results obtained from testing at the A. Riedesel Pavement Testing Facility at Washington State University during the period of November 20, 1972 to May 1973. The purpose of this project was three-fold: (1 to determine pavement wear caused by studded tires; 2) to evaluate the resistance of different pavement overlays used in the states of Washington and Idaho to wear caused by studs; and 3) to test pavement materials and overlays to reduce tire stud damage. Ring and Phase of this project consisted of three concentric tracks on which 16 tires traveled in eight wheel paths. Four types of studs in passenger snow two types of passenger tires, and unstudded truck tires, and 22 sections of various types of pavement overlays and surfacings were tested. Four different stripes were also tested. The results are based on wear in terms of rate of wear, area removed, maximum and average rut depths using the WSU profilometer and the camera wire shadow box apparatus. Skid resistance values were measured using the California Skid Tester and the English Portable Skid Tester. The results are valid only under WSU testing conditions. The findings indicate that some pavement overlays are resistant to the effect of studded tires than others. All types of studded tires tested caused some pavement wear and this affected skid resistance values. Some of the newer types of studs reduced wear of various pavement overlays. The pavements having the most wear resistance had the skid resistance retention characteristics. Additives to asphalt skid resistance helped wear resistance characteristics but lowered skid resistance on characteristics.

Authors:
Krukar,M., Cook,J. C.

Keywords:
asphalt, California, camera, condition, damage, facilities, materials, overlay, overlays, pavement, Pavement Durability, life & performance, asphalt pavement, portland cement concretes, overlays, surface textures, studded tires, skid resistance, pavements, project, repair, resistance, skid resistance, snow, studded tire, studded tires, studs, tire, tires, truck, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
This report covers activities for the eighteen months ending September 1971 under a Washington State Highway Department Contract for Research Project No. Y1301 with the University of Washington. Snow and avalanche climate varies widely across the parts of the Cascade Mountains spanned by SR-20. Little information is presently available about temperatures and weather patterns over the passes, but a limited amount of snow depth data are available from snow courses. These snow data are presented and analyed.

Authors:
LaChapplle,E. R.

Keywords:
avalanche, Avalanches, data, highway, Highway SR 520, North Cascade, project, research, snow, temperature, Washington, Washington state

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Abstract:
This Avalanche Atlas catalogs details of snow avalanche activity along the North Cascades Highway, SR-20, between Newhalem on the west side of the Cascade Mountains and Mazama on the east side. Data contained herein have been collected during summer and winter reconnaissances in 1970 and 1971 under contract between the Washington State Highway Department and the University of Washington. Compilation of this Atlas completes the first phase of a planned three-year study of avalanche problems and control methods on the highways of the State of Washington.

Authors:
LaChapplle,E. R.

Keywords:
Atlas, avalanche, Cascade, control, data, highway, Highways, methods, North, North Cascade, snow, SR 20, Study, Washington, Washington state, winter

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